AER129

Combustion Techniques
Prerequisite SubjectsThermodynamics, Chemical
kinetics, Fluid dynamics, Heat &
mass transfer , Turbulence

COMBUSTION TECHNIQUES

So far in your professional academic

span
you
have
gone
through
THERMODYNAMICS, PROPULSION and
HEAT TRANSFER courses which dealt
with the flow / transformation of heat
energy but never explained in detail
how this heat energy is being
generated.
This course deals how HEAT is
generated both quantitatively and
qualitatively from a given quantity of

CHEMICAL EQULIBRIUM
In real combustion, the combustion
products never forms from single
step.
There
are
numerous
intermediate
steps
involved
in
formation
of
final
combustion
products.
Also these intermediate reactions is
not one way. In practical, conditions
may prevail enabling the reaction in
reverse direction and hence there

WHEN COMBUSTION IS COMPLETE?

Combustion is said to be complete
i.e. chemical equilibrium is achieved
when the rate of change of
concentration of all species involved
in reaction is zero at constant
temperature and pressure.

[ Ai] = 0

DETERMINATION OF COMBUSTION
PARAMETERS IN CHEMICAL EQULIBRIUM.

When the reaction is in chemical

equilibrium it becomes difficult to
determine
the
composition
of
combustion products at constant
pressure and temperature from
which thermodynamic parameters
such as internal energy, enthalpy
etc. can be determined.
GIBBS method of free energy is used
to determine the thermodynamic

GIBBS METHOD

For system of chemical equilibrium

involving n
no. of species at
constant pressure and temperature
GIBBS FREE ENERGY for system is
given as
G=HTS
It is assumed that Gibbs free energy
doesnt change for given
temperature and pressure.
(dG)T,P = 0

(dG)T,P = 0
G= Njj

1
2

j=1 to j

where, j = -Tj
j = j- ln(pj /p0) from basic
thermodynamics
j = j - T j+T ln(pj /p0)
j = j + T ln(pj /p0)

Substituting eqn. 2 in 1
(dG)T,P = 0 = (d ( Njj ))T,P = 0 , j=1 to

( j dNj)T,P = 0 , j=1 to

3
ALSO
( nn ij Nj)T,P = Ai , j=1 to

Jn

Where ,
i - refers to atoms ,
j - refers to
species
nn ij - no. of atoms for species j mixture.

TECHNIQUES FOR SOLVING

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEMS
1. Minimizing the G (eqn 1) with some
assumptions. But reaction involving
large no.of species with many
degrees of freedoms, it becomes
tedious .
2. Using LAGRANGES MULTIPLIERS
()
3. Concept Of Reaction Rate And
Equilibrium Constant

Physics of combustion
Transport phenomena concerns the exchange of mass, energy, and
momentum between observed and studied systems .
The major driving forces causes species transport are
1.Concentration gradient.
2.Pressure gradient.
3.Temperature gradient
Transport phenomena are governed by three basic laws of molecular
transfer
1.Newtons law of viscosity-Momentum transfer
2.Fouriers law of heat conduction Energy transfer
3.Ficks law of diffusion Mass transfer

Unit 2
FLAMES

Thermal boundary layer

Premixed flame
What do you mean by flame ?
Spatial domain in which rapid chemical reactions
takes place often emitting light.
A flame is a self-sustaining propagation of a
localized combustion zone at subsonic velocities.
There are several key words in this definition.
First, we require a flame to be localized that is,
the flame occupies only a small portion of the
combustible mixture at particular time.
The second key word is subsonic. A discrete
combustion wave that travels subsonically is
termed a deflagration.

Premixed flame: Fuel and oxidizer are mixed well at the molecular
leave before combustion.
Ex-Bunsen burner, LPG Domestic burner, SI Engine,
How to characterization of premixed flame?
By its burning velocity
Burning velocity is different from flame speed. Burning velocity is a
measure of the rate at which reactants are moving into the flame
from a reference point located on the moving frame.
Flame speed
Therateatwhichcombustion wave movesthroughan
explosivemixture.
The Flame speed is a measure of how quickly the flame is traveling
from a fixed reference point.
Flame speed always depends on A/F ratio and Equivalence ratio
Combustion wave
Azoneofburningpropagatedthroughacombustiblemedium.

Classification of premixed
flame
1.Detonation-combustion wave
travelling at supersonic speed.
2.Deflagration combustion wave
travelling at subsonic speed.

Laminar premixed flame

 Premixed flames are being employed in many residential , commercial and

industrial devices to meet the recently promulgated stringent
environmental regulations and across the globe.
In this burner fuel enters into the burner at its base and is ejected as a jet
through fuel orifice.
This fuel jet entrains air into the tube from its surrounding through a
number of holes in the burner tube.
The fuel air get mixed thoroughly while flowing up through the tube and
become homogeneous mixture by the time they get burnt at the exit of
tube.
If the flow velocity is considered to be laminar , a parabolic velocity profile
can be attained at the exit of the burner provided that sufficient tube length
.
The flame shape is governed by the combined effect of velocity profile and
heat loss to the burner rim.
For the flame to remain stationary and steady in a quiescent atmosphere
,fuel flow rate must be constant.

Luminous zone-Portion of the flame zone in which temperature is high and

has several radicals to emit radiation. The flame emit radiation over wide
range of band from 3000-4000 AO .Above the luminous zone the burned
gases are diluted and cooled by the surrounding air.
Dark Zone-portion of flame zone in which unburned mixture are heated to
the critical temperature at chemical reactions are initiated.
The colour of luminous zone is depends on the fuel-air ratio in the mixture.
lean flame (complete combustion)-Blue colour due to excitation of OH
radicals .
Decrease in air mass fraction-Green colour due to excitation of C2
molecules.
Decrease in oxygen concentration-Deep violet due to excitation of CH
radicals.
CO2.H2O at high temperature zone causes a reddish glow radiation.
Rich mixture Yellow flame due to presence of solid carbon particles known
as soot.
Note :Non carbon containing fuels such as hydrogen when burnt with air
produces nearly invisible flame as it radiated in the invisible range of
electromagnetic spectrum.

 A flame can propagate freely when it is

initiated in a tube containing combustible fuelair mixture.
A flame man not attain planar/flat front. Most
laminar flames are non planar in shape.
Laminar burning velocity(SL) is defined as the
velocity of the flame front in the direction
normal to itself with respect to unburnt
mixture.
The flame structure can be characterised by
temperature ,heat release and species profiles.
The flame can be divided into three zones .
1.Preheat zone 2.Reaction zone
3.Recombination zone

Flame propagation in a tube

Flame extinction
Flame extinction is immense importance with application as varied as
Spacecraft safety , nuclear power plant safety , accidental
explosion in coal mines , elevators , homes , laboratories
There are several ways and means by a flame can extinguished.
It is known that flame can extinguish when it passes through the
narrow passageways.
Decreases the burning velocity of mixture by increase in diluents
level.
Example
1.Water is universally used to extinguish the flame due to its thermal
effect.
2.Chemical suppressants like halogens alter the chemical kinetics
and extinguish the flame .
In general flames can be extinguished either by reducing the
temperature (quenching) or increasing the heat losses by
altering the reaction rate or both .

Flame quenching
The flame could be extinguished when it enters into a narrow
passageway as it would not allow the flame to propagate the
passage way mainly due to heat loss.
If the passage way is too small the heat transfer from wall is
quite high, decreasing the temperature and reducing the
reaction rate .
consequently the energy release rate gets reduced and flame
temperature drops below the self ignition temperature leading
to flame extinction. This is known as flame quenching.
The critical diameter of a circular tube below which flame
cannot propagate rather get quenched is known as
quenching diameter .
Quenching distance is generally used when flat plates are
used instead of circular tube.

Ignition
We know that one has to supply initial ignition energy to initiate
combustion process in a fuel air mixture. A fuel air mixture can be
ignited by an external source of energy such as electric spark,
electric resistance heater, a naked flame , hot vessel walls,
compression.
It is possible to ignite any fuel-air mixture only when the rate of
heat liberation near the ignition zone must be greater than the
rate of heat loss by conduction.
Explosives, hydrogen, unsaturated hydrocarbons and alkanes in
oxygen have the lowest MIE: in the range of 1 to 100 J.
Alkanes in air, distillate fuels, hybrid mixtures and extremely
sensitive dusts have a MIE range of 0.1 to 10 mJ.
Combustible dusts have a MIE range of 0.01 to 10 J.
The lowest ignition energy value occurs at
the stoichiometric combustion concentration.

Ignition

Minimum ignition energy

Flame stabilization
The combustion wave travels at a certain characteristic burning velocity. The task of
the designer is to contain the flame inside the combustor.
In case of premixed flame based burner the flame can be stabilized inside the burner if
the premixed gas flows in a direction opposite to the flame motion with the same velocity.
When the unburned mixture velocity is increased beyond the burning velocity for a
particular fuel air mixture ratio the flame becomes conical.
The flame cone angle increases with further in flow velocity.
If the flow velocity is increased to a certain threshold value, the flame gets lifted off and
stabilized further downstream from the burner rim.
With further increase in flow velocity beyond the lift off value the flame still moves
further downstream away from the burner rim and lift off height increases until the flame
abruptly moves away from the domain of interest. This critical flow rate of mixture is
termed as the blow-off limit.
In contrast if the flow velocity decrease gradually below the burning velocity for a
particular fuel air mixture case the flame flashes back into the burner with out getting
quenched. This flow rate of mixture at which the flame flashes back into the burner called
as flashback limit.
The flash back in the premixed flame must be avoided as it poses a serious problem of
safety hazard. because the propagation flame inside the burner may ignite the large
volume fuel-air mixture available in the mixing chamber and causes in unwanted
explosion.

Blow off limit

Flash back limit

TURBULENT PREMIXED
FLAME
In most of the practical combustion devices such as gas turbine
combustors, spark ignition engines ,industrial gas burners,
furnaces etc . the flame is likely to be turbulent in nature in
which heat release is much faster than that of laminar flames.
It has been observed that turbulence in the flow significantly
affects the flame propagation rate . But it does not alter the
chemistry.
The mixing in laminar flow is caused only via molecular diffusion
since flow is smooth and orderly. As a result flow properties such
as velocity , temperature and concentration profiles can be quite
smooth.
Turbulent flows are random or irregular due to the random motion
of eddies moving back and forth across the adjacent fluid layers .
Hence turbulent flames fronts are chaotic in nature .

Premixed and Diffusion

Flames

In a premixed flame, the fuel and oxidizer are mixed before reaching
the flame. The stoichiometry of the mixture can be controlled by
changing the fuel to oxidized ratio, and an inert gas such as nitrogen
may be used to dilute the reactants and alter the flame temperature.
In a diffusion flame, only fuel is supplied to the burner (of fuel and an
inert diluents gas such as nitrogen). The oxidizer is supplied from the
ambient air and the mixing and combustion reactions take place
together.
The structure of the flame, with its central fuel core and the outer
reaction zone can be seen by looking at the colors associated with
these regions.
Soot formed in the reaction acts as a "black body" and the yellow
color of the outer and higher regions of the flame indicate its
presence.

Diffusion flame
In combustion, a diffusion flame is a
flame in which the oxidizer combines
with the fuel by diffusion. As a result,
the flame speed is limited by the rate
of diffusion.