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Freeman Ch 23
=
AdaptationsEvolution
= Fitness
Roadmap
Outline
What is a population?
Genetic variation
Link to evolution
Creating new combinations
Mutation, Sexual reproduction
Agents of microevolution
Natural selection, Genetic drift, Gene flow,
mutation
Calculating allele frequencies in populations
Mendelian vs. population genetics
Hardy-Weinberg principle as a null hypothesis
Variables and conditions of the model
Scales of Evolution
New species:
Populations:
Billions of years
Millions of years
10s--1000s of years
Microevolution is a
change in allele
frequencies in a
population over
generations
Homo sapiens
Evolutionary Genetics
Variation in heritable traits is a
prerequisite for evolution
Genetic variation among individuals is
caused by differences in genes or
other DNA segments
Sexual reproduction can result in genetic
variation by recombining existing alleles
New genes and alleles can arise by
mutation or gene duplication
Fig. 13-8
A1
Parents
A1
A2
A3
Meiosis
Gametes
A1
A2
A3
Random
fertilization
Offspring,
with new
combinations
of alleles
A1
A2
A1
and
A3
Genotypes
Gene pool: all of the alleles for all of
the loci in all of the individuals of a
population
If 2+ alleles for loci,
then individual can be
homozygous or
heterozygous
Allele Frequencies
Each allele has a frequency in the
population
Fraction of total alleles in a populations gene
pool
Each diploid individual contributes two alleles to
the gene pool for a particular locus
Agents of Microevolution
Genetic variation in a population must
exist in order for evolution to occur,
BUT variation does NOT guarantee
that the population will evolve
These factors alter allele frequencies
(p and q) and bring about most
evolutionary change
Natural Selection
Genetic drift
Gene flow
Mutation
Natural Selection
Differential reproductive success results
in certain alleles being passed to the
next generation in greater proportions
Can cause adaptive evolution, an
improvement in the match between
organisms and their environment
Direction of
Evolution
Colored
areas are
experienci
ng
negative
selection
Mean size
has lowest
fitness
Before selection
Directional
selection
tends to
reduce
genetic
diversity in a
population.
After selection
Number of individuals
High
fitness
Change in
average
value
Value of a trait
Percentage of birds
Original population
(N = 2880)
Change in
average
value
Survivors
(N = 1027)
Before selection
Number of individuals
High fitness
Low
fitness
Reduction
in variation
After selection
Value of a trait
20
100
70
50
Mortality
30
20
15
10
Very high
mortality
on extremes
10
7
5
3
2
10
11
Percentage of mortality
(b) For example, very small and very large babies are the most
likely to die, leaving a narrower distribution of birthweights.
Before selection
Number of individuals
Low fitness
High
fitness
Increase in
variation
After selection
Value of a trait
Number of individuals
Original population
Highest mortality
at intermediate
range
Survivors
Survivors
Balancing Selection
Multiple mechanisms
Heterozygote Advantage, Frequency-Dependent
Selection
Heterozygote Advantage
When heterozygotes have a higher
fitness than homozygotes
Example: sickle cell anemia also confers
malaria resistance
Frequency Dependent
Selection
Sexual Selection
A special type of natural selection, for
mating success
Cost of reproduction is higher for
females than for males
Eggs larger, more energetically expensive
Tufted Coquettes
Sexual Selection
Traits under sexual selection exhibit adaptions
changes in males (and females) that lead to an
increased ability to secure a mate
Secondary sex characters:
Body size
Color morphs
Ornamental feathers
Weapons (horns, antlers, tusks)
These traits can exhibit sexual dimorphisms
Behaviors:
Fighting, mate choice, dances, vocalizations
Birds of Paradise
Bright plumage and elaborate
behaviors attract females
Sexual selection stronger than
natural selection
Percentage of
males born
Percentage of
females born
Genetic Drift
Changes in allele frequencies due to
chance or random events, not fitness
of organisms
Significant in small populations, often
reduces genetic variation
Alleles can be eliminated or fixed
In this population,
the allele A1 was lost
Generation
Frequency of allele A 1
Frequency of allele A 1
Generation
Gene Flow
The movement of alleles among
populations
Alleles transferred through the movement
of individuals or gametes
Gene flow tends to reduce variation
among populations over time (i.e.
connectivity)
Mutations
Permanent changes in DNA
sequence, an important evolutionary
process that adds new alleles
Point = change in single base pair
Chromosome = change in # or
composition of chromosomes
Lateral gene transfer = genes move
from one species to another
Relative fitness
Time (generations)
Gray aphids
Fungus
genes
Aphid
genes
1 mm
Red aphids
Deletion
Green aphids
Selection
Genetic Drift
Gene flow (migration)
Mutation
Hardy-Weinberg Model
In a population where gametes contribute to
the next generation randomly & Mendelian
inheritance occurs, allele and genotype
frequencies remain constant from generation
to generation
Such a population is in Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium (HWE)
HWE is our null hypothesis
We predict there is no change
If our data fit the equilibrium, we can accept the
hypothesis
q = 0.3
All sperm
in gene
pool
p = 0.7
q = 0.3
p2 = 0.49
A1 A1
A1 A2
A2 A2
p2 = 0.49
2pq = 0.42
q2 = 0.09
pq = 0.21
pq = 0.21
Offspring genotype
frequencies:
q = 0.3
q2 = 0.09
Allele
frequencies
have not
changed
Offspring allele
frequencies:
A1
A2
Parental allele
frequencies
Allele
2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
q p = pq
q q = q2
Offspring allele
frequencies
Offspring genotype
frequencies
p q = pq
p p = p2
A1
p = 0.7
Allele
A2
q = 0.3
These factors
have the most
direct effect
on allele
frequencies
Random Mating
Mutations
Natural Selection
Gene Flow
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Calculate allele frequencies for a
population
2. Predict expected genotype
frequencies as if the population is in
HWE
Practice Case
Consider a population of 100
[diploid] wildflowers where
color gene exhibits
incomplete dominance
2 alleles, 3 phenotypes
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Calculate allele frequencies for
the population
#
individuals
Red (RR)
Pink (Rw)
White
(ww)
Total
70
20
10
# Alleles
contributed to
gene pool
140
40
20
100
200
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Calculate allele frequencies for
the population
Frequency of R = p = 160/200 =
0.8
Frequency of w = q = 40/200 = 0.2
Genotyp
#
e
individuals
Red (RR)
70
Pink (Rw)
20
White
10
(ww)
#R
140
20
0
#w
0
20
20
Alleles
#R
160
#w
40
Total 200
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Calculate allele frequencies for
the population
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
2. Predict genotype frequencies if
the population is in HWE
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
2. Predict genotype frequencies if
the population is in HWE
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
w
(q = 0.2)
Rw
(pq =
0.16)
w
Rw
ww
(q = 0.2) (pq = 0.16) (q2 = 0.04)
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
3. Calculate expected population
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
3. Compare calculated and actual
Calculated
Actual
64 red (p2 = 0.64) 70 red (p2 = 0.70)
32 pink (2pq =
20 pink (2pq =
0.32)
0.20)
4 white (q2 = 0.04)
10 white (q2 =
0.10)
Calculated Actual, so NOT at HWE