ROLE OF SEISMIC METHODS

IN OIL EXPLORATION

G SARVESAM, E.D. (retd.) ONGC

Geophysics in Petroleum
Exploration

Geophysics in Petroleum Exploration

Geophysics provides tools for studying structure and

composition of earths interior
Physical measurements are made at the surface

Geophysical methods

Potential field
methods
Gravity
Magnetic
Electrical
Magneto-telluric

Non-potential field
method
Seismic

Gravity and Magnetic Methods in

Petroleum Exploration

Gravity prospecting

Gravity prospecting
Gravity surveys carried out in search of oil are designed for
reconnaissance of large, previously unexplored areas
Gravity method provides presence of sediments in a basin

Gravitational field observed on surface is a composite of

contributions from all depths within the usual range of
exploration interest
Quantity actually observed is not earths true gravitational
attraction but its variation from one point to another
Variations in gravity observed depend upon lateral changes in
density of earth materials in the vicinity of measuring point

Gravity prospecting

An anomaly in earths gravity can be related to a buried

geological feature e.g. salt dome, diapir
It is possible to map boundaries and estimate depth distribution
of sedimentary basins
Gravity surveys are useful in initial exploration in the
areas where no geological information is available .

10

Gravity prospecting

Earths gravitational field and its relation to gravity

exploration
Gravity measurements made in exploration work show only
variation in gravity from one place to another.

Only such variations are significant in evaluating the gravity

effect of buried bodies.
Any variation in gravity is a positive gravity anomaly if it is
higher than from that over the area surrounding it and
negative when lower.

16

Gravity prospecting

Gravity high over a mass

17

Gravity low over a valley

Gravity prospecting

Gravity Corrections

19

Standard Gravity Corrections

Instrument drift correction
Compensates for drift in the instrument's spring

Earth tide correction

Corrects for tidal effects of moon & sun

Latitude correction
Incorporates the variation of the Earth's gravity with latitude

Free air correction

Accounts for the variation in gravity due to elevation relative to sea level

Bouguer correction
corrects for the attraction of material between the station and sea level

Terrain correction
Removes the effect of topography to a radial distance of 166.7 km

Isostatic correction
Removes long-wavelength variations in the gravity field related to topography

Etvs correction
For a moving platform
20

Measurement of gravity field

Relative gravimeters

Wordon gravimeter
25

CG-5 gravimeter

Interpretation of gravity data

Geological interpretation of gravity data is not easy as it involves
more uncertainties than interpretation of seismic data.

It is to be noted that
1. The field observed at any point is the summation of gravitational
attractions of all subsurface causatives but our objective is to obtain
information on the individual sources.
2. Lack of uniqueness in gravity field from a subsurface source means
that an infinite number of different configurations can result in
identical gravity data at the surface.

26

Separation of anomalies

30

When two sources of approximately same size and

buried at about same depth are close together, field
appears to come from a single source. Resolution of
such individual sources is not always possible.

Gravity field of buried body

34

Gravity field over a fault

35

ONGC a Wealth Creator

Gravity field of syncline

36

Gravity map over salt dome

37

Magnetic prospecting

Magnetic prospecting
Magnetic prospecting is used to explore for both oil and minerals.
It gives information to determine depth to basement rocks, locate
and define the extent of sedimentary basins.
This information is of importance in previously unexplored areas
newly opened for prospecting.
Sedimentary rocks exert a very small magnetic effect compared to
igneous rocks.
Virtually all variations in magnetic intensity result from
topographical or lithlogic changes associated with the basement
or from igneous intrusives.
Today, all magnetic surveys are done from air or from ships due to
speed, economy and convenience.
42

Magnetization of rocks

Total magnetization M consists of

Remnant magnetization Mr
Induced magnetization Mi
M =Mr + Mi

46

Earth magnetic field

Magnetic field of earth depends on

Latitude
Longitude
Time

47

Instruments for measuring magnetic field

Proton-precession magnetometer

49

Magnetic surveys techniques

Magnetic prospecting may be carried on ground, from

aircraft and from ships.
Field techniques are of course different for the three types
of surveys.
On land, magnetic observations are usually made at fixed
positions.
In aerial and marine surveys, magnetic fields are recorded
continuously from sensors.

50

Reduction of magnetic data

Diurnal correction
Geomagnetic correction
Elevation correction

51

ONGC a Wealth Creator

Magnetic anomaly

It is a local variation in earths magnetic field

resulting from variations of the rocks

Magnetic Anomaly = Observed mag. field - Computed mag. field (IGRF)

52

Interpretation of magnetic data

In magnetic survey the objective is to ascertain the

presence of sedimentary basins and to map their
approximate boundaries.

53

Earths magnetic field

magnetic anomalies occur in local field from magnetic rock

below surface (similar to gravity anomalies)

57

Earths magnetic field

removal of magnetic material from near surface
causes negative anomaly (example is normal faulting)

58

Seismic methods

Introduction : Why Seismic?

Forms the backbone of hydrocarbon exploration.
The predominance over other geophysical methods is
due to:
High accuracy
High resolution
Penetration to a great depth.

Seismic reflection method remains to be the most

powerful tool in hydrocarbon E&P activities

Traditionally Seismic Exploration Methods

have been used for Sub-surface Imaging
Also used for
Lithological Identification
DHI Bright spots,AVO, Flat spots
Reservoir characterization Porosity estimation, High
pressure zones, Fracture detection, Oil water Contact etc.

Seismic Exploration
Onshore
(Land)

Acquisition
(acquire Seismic Data)

Processing
(generate subsurface images,
attenuate Noise etc.)

Interpretation
(generate geological

Offshore
(Marine)

Seismic Acquisition
and Processing

Basic Concepts - Learning Objectives

What it takes to make a seismic trace

Body and Surface waves
Reflection (99% of all seismic) and refraction
Basics of seismic fold and stacked traces

The Basic Seismic Reflection Method

Basic reflection theory :

Propagating waves are partly
reflected & partly transmitted at
subsurface interfaces
Arrivals at the surface are recorded
as a function of travel time

Reflection coefficient: The ratio of

the amplitude of the reflected wave
to that of the incident wave.

Ideal Seismogram What You Would Want

The seismic data recorded should give us the Earths
reflectivity sequence:

Surface

Time

Depth
6

Reflection Coefficient

5
Acoustic

Reflection

impedance
+

No

coefficient
+

seismic
response

No

depth

time

scale
implied

scale
implied

Data acquisition and processing

Interpretation

Figure 1. The interrelationship of seismic data acquisition and processing with

seismic interpretation. The former are forward processes, and the latter is an
inverse process. AI = acoustic impedance; RC = reflection coefficient.

The Convolutional Model for the Ideal Seismogram

Total Seismic
Response

Seismic Wavelet
(Zero Phase)

Lithology

Interface Responses

Acoustic
Impedance
Reflectivity
Series

Water

Gas
Water

200 ms.

Body Wave Types

Two body wave types: distinguished by particle motion

direction
P-waves

wave

Body Waves

(Compressional, longitudinal)
Particle motion parallel to wave propagation
Exist in solids, liquids and gases

(Shear, transverse)
ParticleS-waves
motion perpendicular
to wave propagation
Exist only in solids

10

Wave propagation and particle motion in P wave

Wave propagation and particle motion in Shear

wave

Wave propagation and particle motion in

Rayleigh wave

Wave propagation and particle motion in Love

wave

SV- and SH-waves

SV-waves have particle motion within the vertical plane

SH-waves have particle motion within the horizontal plane.

Seismogram of Earthquake

Vp> Vs> Vlove>

Huygens Principle
Every point on an advancing wavefront can be regarded as
a
secondary source of energy.
Each of these secondary sources expands to form its own
wavefront.
The new composite wavefront is formed by taking the
tangent
to the wavefronts of all these secondary sources

Raypaths and Wavefronts

shot

shot

receivers

receivers

Reflection
points
interface

Wavefronts

How waves actually travel

Raypaths
Surface of equal travel time
Rays perpendicular to wavefronts Surface of equal phase
Simple to use.
Ray trace modeling

P-waves and S-waves

G E CO
O

Water
Vp = 1500m/s
Vs = 0m/s

reflected
P wave

Hard Sea-bed
Vp = 2500m/s
Vs = 1200m/s

11

transmitted
P wave

transmitted
S wave

incident
P wave

L O

S L O

N G VA

P-waves and S-waves

transmitted
P wave

Water
Vp = 1500m/s
Vs =
Layer 2
Vp = 2> 1500m/s
Vs = 2= 1=1500m/s
incident
S wave

12

reflected
P wave

reflected
S wave

Source to Receiver Ray Path

18

NMO Hyperbola and NMO Velocity

Source

Receivers

Offset

0.0

VLayer

Time
(sec)

0.5

VNMO = VLayer
T0

1.0

Moveout
t

TX 2 To2
17

X2
V

TX
1.5

NMO

Class Exercise - Using the Moveout Equation

TX2 = T02 + X2/V2

t
T0
Xmin
x
Nx
tXmax

= 0.845secs
=0
= 200m
= 25
= 553 ms

Areflection seismic experiment produces the CMP gather plotted above.

Determine the approximate velocity of the material overlying the shallowest reflector.
Then compute an approximate depth to the shallowest reflector.
18

Refraction Seismic Method

Seismic source into array of receivers
Direct wave
V1
V2 > V1

Time

Layer
Thickness = h

Head wave

Zero Offset
Time = t0

15

Slope = 1 / V1

Cross-over

Distance

Flat Earth Primary Reflections

Source

16

Receiver

Ideal Primaries
Trace

Source to Receiver Ray Path

18

Building Sub-Surface Coverage

R
S

Common Mid-Points

CMP = R/2

Full Fold NR
Full Fold
19

Stacking Diagram
Reflection point or stacking diagrams facilitate collecting or gathering traces for
various purposes. Mid points for each field record are displayed as being shifted
downward vertically, but in the correct horizontal position.

20

Trace Gather Definitions

21

Basic Concepts - Summary

You should now have an appreciation of:
What it takes to make a seismic trace
The difference between Body and Surface waves
Basics of reflection (99% of all seismic) and refraction
Basics of seismic fold and stacked traces

22

Seismic Acquisition
and Processing

- Field DataAcquisition Principles

FieldAcquisition Principles - Learning objectives

Overview of different types of seismic data acquisition
Marine, Land, Transition, Borehole, Ocean Bottom, Time Lapse

Signal and noise

Appreciation of what is signal and what is noise.
Sources of signals and of noise.

Noise attenuation during acquisition.

Arrays,
2

objectives, design, pros and cons., alternatives

Types of seismic data acquisition

Land

Marine surface
techniques
Land surface
techniques
Transition Zone
Borehole
seismic
Ocean bottom
sensors
Time lapse
3

Geophone

Transition Zone

Marine

Vessel
Airguns

Marsh Phones

Hydrophones

Basic Concepts of Seismic Surveying - Field Equipment

Marine seismic acquisition

The largest man-made moving object on Earth?

3D marine surface seismic data acquisition

Boat
Sea Surface
Source
(Airguns)
Incident
waves

Cable with hydrophones

Reflected
waves
Sea bed

Sea surface

Sea bed

Types of Seismic DataAcquisition

Land

Marine surface
techniques
Land surface
techniques
Transition Zone
Borehole
seismic
Ocean bottom
sensors
Time lapse

Geophone

Transition Zone

Marine

Vessel
Airguns
Hydrophones

Marsh Phones

Land Energy Sources

Vibrational
Explosive

13

Acquiring Seismic Data

Acquiring Land Seismic

Basic Concepts of Seismic Surveying - Field Equipment

Land seismic acquisition

?
3

LandAcquisition
Huge operations in variety of differing
terrains
Vibroseis and explosive sources
10s thousands of receivers geophones or
accelerometers

Near-surface complexities need to be

solved
noise now treated as useful signal for nearsurface properties

3D surveys typical
Survey design to enable inversion technology

Industry move to simultaneous source

11
acquisition

Land seismic components

12

Positioning
Sensor
Source
Recording
Deploying source and receivers
People to work the equipment

Impulsive Sources - Explosives

Can be used in difficult terrain
Difficult to control the signal
Expensive, slow and hazardous

Sensors What IsAGeophone?

19

Very high precision instrument

Very sensitive instrument
Very rugged construction
The essence of seismic surveys

Land Sensor - Geophone

Cross Section

Shown at right is a simplified

representation of an exploration
seismometer, or geophone as it is
more commonly called.

Principal components are:

Case,
Planting spike
Permanent magnet,
Mass,
Wire coil
20
Spring

GeophoneView
Components

NMO Hyperbola and NMO Velocity

Source

Receivers

Offset

0.0

VLayer

Time
(sec)

0.5

VNMO = VLayer
T0

1.0

Moveout
t

TX 2 To2
17

X2
V

TX
1.5

NMO

seismic traces
Seismic Line
Shot point

Surface

Geophone

Direct
Wave

Reflection

Multiple

depth

time

Seismograms are contaminated with Shot generated Coherent Noise.

Land (Onshore) seismic data acquisition

1. Source (Vibrator)
2. Receivers (Geophones)
3. Recording Truck
Raw Seismic Data

Marine (Offshore) seismic data acquisition

Source (Airguns)

1. Recording Boat
2. Receivers (Hydrophones)
Raw Seismic Data

Seismic data from Field

Shot 1

Shot 2

DataAcquisition

Geology

Shot 3

Shot 4

Shot 5

Processing

Seismic data after Processing

Building Sub-Surface Coverage

R
S

Common Mid-Points

CMP = R/2

Full Fold NR
Full Fold
19

Raw Seismic Data 3D

6 Receiver Lines / Shot

Major features of seismic records

Reflections are signal
most of the rest is signal as
well; but will become
unwanted signal after
Acquisition and processing
information
extraction
enhance reflection signals and
suppress unwanted signals
Geophone arrays can attenuate
surface waves
Recording system filter settings
can remove frequencies
dominated by unwanted signals
31

Time

Offset

Multiple

Major features of seismic records (continued)

Offset

Ground Roll (Signal)

Air Wave (Noise)

Type of coherent noise (contains
hardly any sub-surface information)
High frequency
Travels mostly through air
Velocity: 1100 ft/sec (330 m/s)
33

Time

Type of coherent signal (contains

information about near-surface)
Low frequency
Coupled to surface or near-surface
Velocity range: 3500-5500 ft/sec
(~1000-1700 m/s)

Multiple

Module 61Identification
Exercise

Record 15
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of Seismic Signal and Noise 1

Record 1
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Module 61Identification
Exercise

Record 4
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of Seismic Signal and Noise 2

Record 11
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Module 6
Identification
of Seismic Signal and Noise 3
Exercise 1

Record 6
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Record 30
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Identification of Seismic Signal and Noise 3

Ambient noise example record

Bad
Station

Rig Prep

Gas Plant

Recording
Truck and
major
pipeline

Pre 3D Test Line; Ambient Noise Record,

Station Spacing = 220 feet, 220 foot In-Line LinearArray

35

34,100 feet

Bog

Road plus
Pipelines

pipeline

Creek + line
offset

Backscattered ground-roll (noise) leaks into stack

36

Noise on Seismic Records

Ambient / Random / Noise

- Can not be predicted across traces
- Random in nature

Seismic Record

Noise on Seismic Records

Ambient / Random / Noise

- Can not be predicted across traces
- Random in nature

Seismic Record

Noise on Seismic Records

Coherent / Shot Generated Noise

Ground Roll

Seismic Record

ATypical Land Seismic Record

Less Signal
More Noise

Random Noise (In-coherent Noise)

Surface Waves (Coherent Noise)

Noise Editing
Before Noise Edit

After Noise Edit

Land 3D SurfaceAcquisition Techniques

Parallel/Swath Shooting:
16 receiver lines
64 receivers/line
1 shot/spread

Orthogonal Shooting:
source/receiver grid:
8 lines
64 receivers/line
8 shots/spread

Recording Templates
14

Seismic Shot Records

Raw Seismic Data 3D

6 Receiver Lines / Shot

MultiAzimuthAcquisition -ASimple OpticalAnalogy

Inadequate seismic images have been associated with poor
illumination from conventional, narrow-azimuth marine seismic
in numerous real world cases.

Frequency content and Resolution

Its necessary to restore high frequencies to enhance the resolution.

Objective 3 : To improve Resolution

Before frequency enhancement

After frequency enhancement

Objectives of Seismic Data Processing

1. To produce Seismic Section Representative of Geology
2. To Improve Signal to Noise Ratio
3. To improve Seismic Resolution

What is Seismic data Processing ?

Seismic Data Processing is a sequence of
mathematical operations, which are carried out to
extract useful information from the raw seismic data.

Geophysicists use Latest and Largest Computers

Objective 2 2.: ToTo

improve Signal to Noise Ratio
improve Signal to Noise ratio

Output after processing 2D Data

(2D Cross section of the Sub-surface)

Distance
t
i
m
e

Reflectors / Interfaces

Pitfalls of 2D Interpretation - Map View of 2-D Grid

Meandering Stream Channel

2-D grid with three different potential interpretations
Grid

2-D Seismic

13

Stream
Channels

Building Sub-Surface Coverage

R
S

Common Mid-Points

CMP = R/2

Full Fold NR
Full Fold
19

Why 3D? Whats wrong with 2D?

2D seismic lines only cover thin
"slices" of the sub-surface
We can make assumptions about
what happens in the gaps between
our lines (interpolation based on
possible geological scenarios), but
we don't really know what's
happening in the areas that our lines
miss
If the lines are very widely spaced,
we could miss a vital structure!

The only way to solve these

problems is to cover the
entire survey area with a
series of very closely spaced
seismic lines, producing a 3D
volume of seismic data

Pitfalls of 2D Interpretation - Map View of 2-D Grid

Meandering Stream Channel

2-D grid with three different potential interpretations
Grid

2-D Seismic

13

Stream
Channels

Land 3D SurfaceAcquisition Techniques

Parallel/Swath Shooting:
16 receiver lines
64 receivers/line
1 shot/spread

Orthogonal Shooting:
source/receiver grid:
8 lines
64 receivers/line
8 shots/spread

Recording Templates
14

2D vs 3D Seismic Structural Interpretation

2-D Seismic Line

3D Seismic
Cube
14

Interpretation Before 3-D Survey

15

InterpretationAfter 3-D Survey

Modified from Brown, 1996

16

Types of seismic acquisition

Land

Marine surface
techniques
Land surface
techniques
Transition Zone
Borehole
seismic
Ocean bottom
sensors
Time lapse

17

Geophone

Transition Zone

Marine

Vessel
Airguns
Hydrophones

Marsh Phones

Shallow WaterAirgunArray

18

Planting Dynamite

19

Ocean Bottom MulticomponentAcquisition

24

Types of SeismicAcquisition
Land

Marine surface
techniques
Land surface
techniques
Transition Zone
Borehole
seismic
Ocean bottom
sensors
Time lapse

25

Geophone

Transition Zone

Marine

Vessel
Airguns
Hydrophones

Marsh Phones

Time -Lapse (4D) seismic

Measure changes in seismic response
due to reservoir production, injection or
compaction
Repeatability is a major concern
Plan baseline surveys with 4D in mind
Minimize changes between field
acquisitions.
Equipment
Designissue
Legacy
Positioning
Processing

26

Phase in field life cycle

Shooting direction
Offset distribution
Source-receiver azimuth distribution

Interpreting 4D Information

27

4D Example Gulfaks Field, North Sea

28

Seismic Method
The seismic technique is the most
valuable tool for exploration and for
visualizing the subsurface

Seismic sections and attributes can

be used to map subsurface horizons
and rock properties

Seismic techniques are being

increasingly utilized for optimizing
reservoir development & production

The Geophysics Cycle

Drill
here

ACQUISITION

PROCESSING

INTERPRETATION
5

Seismic Data Processing

The Interpretation Task

To identify observable, measurable
attributes in seismic image

To relate them to Geological

attributes

To infer likelihood of presence of

Structure, Stratigraphy, Lithology,

or Payload (hydrocarbons)
8

Ensuring that Seismic and Well

Comparing Wireline Logs to Seismic

Synthetic seismogram
models are used to tie the
geology from wireline logs
(DEPTH) to the seismic
reflectors (TIME).

Wireline
Log

3D Survey Volumes

11

Chapter 3: Seismic Attributes

a)

b)

Figure 6. (a)Traditional 3D time slice; faults parallel to strike are difficult to see.
(b) Coherence time slice; faults are clearly visible. From Bahorich and Farmer (1995).

interpretation tasks. Coherence displays such as that shown in Figure 7b

also can be very useful for quality control of fault picks to ensure that faults
are not miscorrelated in structurally complicated areas. Some interpreters
prefer to pick faults primarily on coherence slices rather than on vertical
sections when data quality permits.
Coherence data usually are viewed on a horizontal slice through the

29

Map View 3-D Volume

Meandering Stream Channel

17

Aerial Photo of Modern Delta

18

3-D Time Slice ofAncient Delta

Seismic CoherencyAttribute

19

SeismicAmplitude Map of a Horizon

Channels

3-D Seismic data

define reservoirquality,channel-fill
sand deposits

Modified from Brown, 1996

20

Photographic analogy for PP & PS imaging

PP image:

Simultaneous
PP & PS
inversion

PS image:

Traditionally Seismic Exploration Methods

have been used for Sub-surface Imaging
Also used for
Lithological Identification
DHI Bright spots,AVO, Flat spots
Reservoir characterization Porosity estimation, High
pressure zones, Fracture detection, Oil water Contact etc.

Applications of Seismic Data in E&PToday

Maps of Prospects
and Fields
Direct Indicators of
Hydrocarbons
Predictions of
Reservoir Properties
Guidance for
Wellbore Placement
Seismic is a key tool for
well planning
27

Tool for Reservoir

Management

Summary
You should now:-

Understand the variety of ways that seismic data assists todays E&P

Appreciate the advantages of 3D over 2D surveys

Understand how well logs aid basic interpretation

32

Have an appreciation of the magnitude of the interpretation task

Hope U enjoyed the presentation