METROLOGY

&
INSTRUMENTATION
A. Sunanda
Asst. Professor
Department of Mechanical Engg

METROLOGY
Metrology is derived from two greek
words one metro and the other is
logy metro means measurements and
logy means science. Metrology is the
name given to the science of pure
measurement.
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INSTRUMENTATION
Devices
system.

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used

in

measurement

MEASUREMENT
It is a process of comparing quantitatively an
unknown magnitude with a predefined standard.
Ex: consider the measurement of length of bar we
make use of a scale as standard
Need of Measurement :
1. To improve the quality of the product.
2. To maintain the proper operation.
3. To maintain efficiency of production.
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OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
The basic objective of measurement is to provide the
required accuracy at a minimum cost. Metrology has
further objectives in a modern engineering plant with
different shapes which are.
1. Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2. Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and
efficient use of available facilities.
3. Maintaining the accuracy of the measurement.
4. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through
application of statistical quality control techniques.
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Types of
Metrology

Subfield

Scientific or
fundamental
metrology

Applied or
industrial metrology

Legal metrology

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Definition
concerns the establishment ofquantity
systems,
unit
systems,units
of
measurement, the development of new
measurement methods.
concerns the application of measurement
science to manufacturing and other
processes and their use in society, ensuring
the suitability of measurement instruments,
their calibration and quality control of
measurements.
concerns
regulatory
requirements
of
measurements and measuring instruments
for the protection of health, public safety,
the environment, protection of consumers
and fair trade.

Process of
Measurement :
Sequence of operations necessary for the execution of
measurement is called process of measurement .
There are three important elements of measurement .
1. Measurand : It is the physical quantity or property like
length, angle, diameter, thickness etc to be measured.
2. Reference : It is the physical quantity or property to which
quantitative comparisons are made.
3. Comparator : It is the means of comparing measurand with
some reference.

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For example a fitter has to measure the length of MS

flat He first lays his rule along the flat, then carefully
aligns the zero end of his rule with one end of the MS
flat and finally compares the length of the flat.
In this example the length of MS flat is measurand steel
rule is the reference and I can be considered as a
comparator.

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METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
The methods of measurement can be classified as
1. Direct Method.
2. In direct Method.

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Direct Method
In which the value of the quantity to be measured is
obtained directly with out any calculation. This method is
not accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness
in making judgement.
Ex.
For Example measurements using scales, vernier calipers

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In direct Method

The Value of the quantity to be measured is obtained by

measuring other quantities which are functionally related
to the required value.
Ex.
Angle measured by sine bar.

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Basic definitions
1.

Nominal size(Basic size): It is the size on which the limits of size are
based and which is assigned to a part in accordance with function.

2.

True size: It is the theoretical size of a dimension, which is free from any
errors of measurement.

3.

Actual size: It is the value of size obtained through measurement with the
permissible measuring error.

4.

Exact size: It is the value of size obtained with the highest metrological
accuracy attainable in practice.

5.

Approximate size: It is the value of size obtained with an error exceeding

the permissible error of measurement and requiring refinement.

6.

Error of measurement: It is the difference between the true value of the

size being measured and the value found by measurement.

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7.

Sensitivity: The smallest change in a measurement that an instrument is

capable of detecting.

Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small differences

in a quantity being measured.
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device
of an instrument , with respect to the measured quantity.
Sensitivity= scale spacing/scale division value
Ex: In dial indicator , scale spacing is 1.0mm and scale division value is
0.01mm.
Sensitivity= 1/0.01=100= Amplification factor =gearing ratio

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Which is more sensitive?

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8.

Calibration: The comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a

device with a known, accurate standard to eliminate any variation in the
device being checked.

It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device produces
zero output for zero measured input. Calibration is a pre-measurement
process, generally carried out by manufacturers.
The accuracy of an instrument depends on the calibration. Constant use of
instruments affect their accuracy. If the accuracy is to be maintained, the
instruments must be checked and recalibrated if necessary.
9.

Hysteresis: An instrument is said to exhibit hysterisis when there is

difference in readings depending on whether the value of the measured
quantity is approached from higher value or from a lower value

The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to the presence of dry friction as well as

the properties of elastic elements. It results in the loading and unloading
curves of the instrument being separated by a difference called hysteresis
error.

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It also results in the pointer not returning completely to zero when the load is
removed. Hysteresis is particularly noted in instruments having elastic
elements.
The phenomenon of hysteresis in materials is due mainly to the presence of
internal stresses. It can be reduced considerably by proper heat treatment.
10. Repeatability: It is the capability of an instrument to give the same
output among repeated inputs of the same value over a period of time.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

-by the same observer

-with the same instrument
-under the same conditions
-without any change in location
-without change in the method of measurement
-and the measurements are carried out in short intervals of time.
It may be expressed quantitatively in terms of dispersion of the results

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11. Reproducability: It is defined as the degree of closeness with which the

same value of a variable may be measured at different times.
-by different observers,
. -different methods,
. -different instruments
. -under different conditions, locations, times etc.
. It may also be expressed quantitatively in terms of the dispersion of the
results.
12. Accuracy: Accuracy refers to the closeness of the measured value to a
known value.
Ex.:
In lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 Kg for a given substance, but
the actual weight is 10 Kg then your measurement is not accurate.
.

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13. Precision : Precision refers to the closeness of two more measurement to

each other.
Ex.:
If you weigh a given substance 5 times and get 2.3 Kg each time then your
measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy
You can be very precise but inaccurate, you can also be accurate but
imprecise.

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension, there is always
some error.
Error in measurement = Measured value true value
Error in measurement may be expressed or evaluated as an absolute error or
as a relative error.
Absolute error:
It is the algebraic difference between the measured value and the true value of
the measured dimension.
Ex:
When a meter stick is used to measure a given distance. Let the error is 1mm.
This is the absolute error of the measurement.
That is, absolute error = x =1mm

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Relative error:
It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison used for
calculation of that error
relative error = absolute error/value of thing measured(true value)
= x/x
= 0.001
Types of errors: During measurement
Parallax error
Reading errors
1.Static errors
Characteristic errors
Loading errors
Environmental errors

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Interpolation error
Calibration error

Calibration errors
Ambient conditions
Systematic or
controllable errors

2.Dynamic
errors

Stylus pressure
Avoidable errors
Random errors

Random errors or accidental

The accuracy of measurement, and hence the error depends

upon so many factors, such as Calibration standard, work
piece, instrument, person and environment.

To minimize the error, usually a number of observations are

made and their average is taken as the value of that
measurement.

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Static error : These errors result from the physical nature of the various
components of the measuring system
Dynamic error: It is the error caused by time variations in the measurand.
Sources of errors: noise, design limitations, environmental effects, errors in
observation.
Types of process errors:

1.Location error: Measuring at a different location. Measurements occur

at finite points on an infinite surface.

2.Condition error: Measuring under different conditions. The weight of an

aircraft depends on the local gravity constant.

3.Instrument error: Using an incorrect instrument.

4.Operator Error: That human influence can be corrupted by the goals of

the interrogation (when the objective is achieved and not achieved).

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STANDARD

Standard : A STANDARD IS DEFINED AS SOMETHING THAT IS

SETUP AND ESTABLISHED BY AUTHORITY AS A RULE FOR THE
measurement of quantity, weight, quality etc..

Ex : meter is a standard established by an international organization for

measurement of length.

Role of standard: To achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable

measurements through out the world. Today our entire industrial economy
is based on the interchangeability of parts .to achieve this a measuring
system adequate to define the features to the accuracy required and the
standards of sufficient accuracy to support the measuring system are
necessary.

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STANDARDS OF LENGTH

In practice, the accurate measurement must be made by comparison with a

standard of.

known dimension and such a standard is called Primary Standard

The first accurate standard was made in England and was known as
Imperial Standard

yard which was followed by International Prototype meter made in

France. Since

these two standards of length were made of metal alloys they are called
material length

standards.

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Subdivision of standards:

The imperial standard yard and the international prototype meter are
master standards & cannot be used for ordinary purposes. Thus based upon
the accuracy required, the standards are subdivided into four grades
namely.

1. Primary Standards

2. Secondary standards

3. Teritiary standards

4. Working standards

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Primary standards:

They are material standard preserved under most careful conditions. These
are not used for directly for measurements but are used once in 10 or 20
years for calibrating secondary standards.

Ex: International Prototype meter, Imperial Standard yard.

Secondary standards:

These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design, material & length.
Any error existing in these standards is recorded by comparison with
primary standards after long intervals. They are kept at a number of places
under great supervision and serve as reference for tertiary standards. This
also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.

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Teritiary standards:

The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate controls for

reference at rare intervals. Tertiary standards are the reference standards
employed by National Physical laboratory (N.P.L) and are the first
standards to be used for reference in laboratories & workshops.
They are made as close copies of secondary standards & are kept as
reference for comparison with working standards.

Working standards:

These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary & tertiary

standards. But being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they
are used for general applications in metrology laboratories.
Sometimes, standards are also classified as;
Reference standards (used as reference purposes)
Calibration standards (used for calibration of inspection & working
standards)
Inspection standards (used by inspectors)
Working standards (used by operators)

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LINE
STANDARDS
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two

lines, then it is called Line Standard.

Examples: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International prototype
meter, etc.
Characteristics of Line Standards:
1. Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take the full
advantage of this accuracy.
Ex: A steel rule can be read to about 0.2 mm of true dimension.
2. A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.
3. The wear on the leading ends results in under sizing
4. A scale does not possess a built in datum which would allow easy scale
alignment with the axis of measurement, this again results in under sizing.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax effect, which is a source of both positive
& negative reading errors.
6. Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length measurements except
in conjunction with microscopes.

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END STANDARDS

When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
parallel faces, then it is called End standard.
End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy.
Ex: Slip gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.
Characteristics of End Standards:
1. End standards are highly accurate and are well suited for measurements of
close tolerances as small as 0.0005 mm.
2. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.
3. End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
4. End standards have a built in datum, because their measuring faces are
flat & parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.
5. They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use depends on
feel.
6. Groups of blocks may be wrung together to build up any length. But
faulty wringing leads to damage

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Limits & Fits: Why study Limits & Fits?

Exact size is impossible to achieve.

Establish boundaries within which deviation from perfect form is allowed
but still the design intent is fulfilled.
Enable interchangeability of components during assembly
Definition of Limits:
The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual size
of a component lies are called Limits

Tolerance:
It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore it is essential to
allow a definite tolerance or permissible variation on every specified
dimension.

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Why Tolerance are Specified:

Variations in properties of the material being machined introduce errors.

The production machines themselves may have some inherent
inaccuracies.
It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings. While setting up
the tools and work piece on the machine, some errors are likely to creep in.

Consider the dimension shown in fig. When trying to achieve a diameter of 40

mm (Basic or Nominal diameter), a variation of 0.05 mm on either side may
result. If the shaft is satisfactory even if its diameter lies between 40.05 mm &
39.95 mm, the dimension 40.05 mm is known as Upper limit and the dimension
39.95 mm is known as Lower limit of size. Tolerance in the above example is
(40.05-39.95) =0.10 mm Tolerance is always a positive quantitative number.

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Types of Tolerance :

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Unilateral Tolerance :

Tolerances on a dimension may either be unilateral or bilateral.

When the two limit dimensions are only on one side of the nominal size,
(either above or below) the tolerances are said to be unilateral.
For unilateral tolerances, a case may occur when one of the limits coincide
with the basic size.

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Bilateral Tolerance :
When the two limit dimensions are above and below nominal size, (i.e. on either
side of the nominal size) the tolerances are said to be bilateral. Unilateral
tolerances, are preferred over bilateral because the operator can machine to the
upper limit of the shaft (or lower limit of a hole) still having the whole tolerance
left for machining to avoid rejection of parts.

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Tolerance Accumulation (or)

Tolerance Build up:

If a part comprises of several steps, each step having some tolerance

specified over its length, then the overall tolerance on the complete length
will be the sum of tolerances on individual lengths as shown in fig.
The effect of accumulation of tolerances can be minimized by adopting
progressive dimensioning from a common datum as shown in fig.
Another example of tolerance build up is shown below.

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Terminology of limit systems:

Limits of size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a component between

which the actual size should lie including the maximum and minimum
sizes of the component.
Nominal size: It is the size of the component by which it is referred to as a
matter of convenience.
Basic size: It is the size of a part in relation to which all limits of variation
are determined.
Zero Line: It is the line w.r.t which the positions of tolerance zones are
shown.

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Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a limit of size and the

corresponding basic size.

Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum

limit of size and the corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters ES
for a hole and es for a shaft.

Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum

limit of size and the corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters EI
for a hole and ei for a shaft.

Fundamental Deviation: It is the deviation, either upper or lower

deviation, which is nearest to the zero line for either a hole or a shaft. It
fixes the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero line.

Allowance: It is the intentional difference between the hole dimensions

and shaft dimension for any type of fit.

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Difference between Tolerance & Allowance

Tolerance

Allowance

It is the permissible variation in the It is the prescribed difference between

dimension of a part(either a hole or the dimensions of two mating
shaft)
parts(hole and shaft)
It is the difference between higher and It is the intentional difference between
lower limits of a dimension of a part
the lower limit of hole and higher limit
of shaft
The tolerance is provided on the Allowance is to be provided on the
dimension of a part as it is not possible dimension of mating parts to obtain
to make a part to exact specified desired type of fit
dimension
It has absolute value without sign

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Allowance may be positive(clearance

fit) or negative(interference fit)

All these standards basically make use of the following to give innumerable fits
1.Standard tolerance (Fundamental tolerance)
2.Fundamental deviation
Grade of Tolerance: It is an indication of the level of accuracy. There are 18
grades of tolerances IT01, IT0, IT1 to IT16
IT01 to IT4 - For production of gauges, plug gauges, measuring instruments
IT5 to IT7 - For fits in precision engineering applications
IT8 to IT11 For General Engineering
IT12 to IT14 For Sheet metal working or press working
IT15 to IT16 For processes like casting, general cutting work

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Standard Tolerance :
Various grades of tolerances are defined using the standard tolerance unit,
(i) in m, which is a function of basic size
For D<500 mm
i= 0.004D + 2.1 for D>500 mm
where, D (mm) is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters of a
particular diameter step within which the chosen the diameter D lies.
Diameter steps in I.S.I are: (a-b, where a is above and b is up to)
1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-14,14-18, 18-24,24-30, 30-50, 50-80, 80-120, 120-180, 180250, 250-315, 315-400 and 400-500 mm

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It is understood that tolerances have parabolic relationship with the size of the
products.
As the size increases, tolerance within which a part can be manufactured also
increases
For IT01, Tolerance =0.3 + 0.08D
For IT0, Tolerance=0.5+0.12D
For IT1, Tolerance=0.8+0.02D
IT2 to IT4 are regularly scaled approximately, geometrically between the values
of IT1 and IT5
(IT1 is given above and IT5 given in table below)
Where D is in millimeters
Grad
es

Valu
es

IT5

IT6

7i

10i

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT1
0

IT1
1

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 100

0i

Table2-Fundamenta
l deviations

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IT1
2

IT1
3

IT1
4

IT1
5

IT1
6

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values In
Microns

IT01

Values For
D In mm

IT0

IT1

0.3+0.008D 0.5+0.012D

0.8+0.020D

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values In
Microns

IT5

IT6

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT10

IT11

IT12

IT13

IT14

IT15

IT16

Values
For D In
mm

7i

10i

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i

1000i

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General Cases

Special Subdivisions

Millimeters

Millimeters

Above

Upto

Above

Upto

3
6
10
18
30
50
80
120
180
250
315
400

3
6
10
18
30
50
80
120
180
250
315
400
500

10
14
18
24
30
40
50
65
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
225
250
280
315
335
400
450

14
18
24
30
40
50
65
80
100
120
14
160
180
200
225
250
280
315
335
400
450
500

Upper Deviation (es)

Shaft
In microns
Designation
(for D in mm)
= -(265 + 1.3D)
for D 120
a
and = 3.52D
for D > 120
(140 + 0.85D)
for D 160
b
= 1.82D
for D > 160
= 52 D 0.2
for D 40
c
= -(95 + 0.8D)
for D > 40
d

Table :Formulae for Fundamental Deviations

for Shafts for sizes upto 500 mm
Lower Deviation (ei)
Shaft
Designation
J5 to j8

In microns
(for D in mm)
No formula

k4 to k8
k for grade
3 and 4
m
n

= + 0.6 D1/3
=0
= + (IT7-IT6)
= + 5D0.34

= + IT7 + 0 to 5

= geometric mean of
values el for p and s

= 16D 0.44

= -llD0.41

f
g

= -5.5D0.41
= -2.5D0.34

=0

t
u
v
x
y
z
za
zb

= IT8 + 1 to 4
for D 50
= + IT7 to + 0.4D
for D > 50
= + IT7 + 0.63D
= + IT7 + D
= + IT7 + 1.25D
= + IT7 + 1.6D
= + IT7 + 2D
= + IT7 + 2.5D
= IT8 + 3 + 3.15D
= + IT9 + 4D

(+ve)

(For holes)

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(-ve)

(For shafts)

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TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS
Symbolic representation for tolerances on shafts and holes

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APPLICATIONS
Measuring Instruments and
Production of Gauges
General Engineering/Industry and
Precision Fit

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Semi Finished Product

Structural Engineering

IT Grade Range
IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3,
IT4, IT5, IT6
IT5, IT6,
IT7, IT8, IT9, IT10,
IT11, IT12
IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16
IT16

For shafts a to h the deviation is below zero line(-ve) and for shafts k to
zc it is above the zero line(+ve)
The deviation of the shaft from j to k is either +ve or ve
For holes A to H, the lower deviation is above the zero line(+ve) and for
K to ZC, it is below the zero line(-ve)
The deviation of the hole from J to K either +ve or ve
The other deviations(upper & lower) deviations may be derived directly using
the absolute value of the tolerance IT by means of algebraic relationship.
ei = es-IT

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Upper deviation of shafts from a to g are ve and for h it is zero and

lower deviation of the remaining shafts is +ve.
For holes, lower deviation is +ve for holes A to G and for H it is zero
and upper deviation of remaining holes is ve.
Max. clearance= Max. size of hole - Min. size of shaft
Min. clearance= Min. size of hole - Max. size of shat
If both are +ve, clearance fit
If both are ve, interference fit
If one is +ve and other is ve, transition fit.

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SYSTEM OF FITS
Fit is an assembly condition between Hole & Shaft
Hole: A feature engulfing a component.
Shaft: A feature being engulfed by a component

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FITS
The RELATION resulting from the difference between the sizes before
assembly
Classification of Fits

Clearance Fit

1.Sliding fit
2.Running fit

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Transition Fit
Interference fit

1.Light keying fit

1.Light press fit
2.Push fit
2.Press fit/Driving fit
3.Heavy drive fit

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Clearance Fit:
In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is less than the smallest
hole diameter so that the shaft can rotate or slide according to the purpose of
the assembly.

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Interference fit:
It is defined as the fit established when a negative clearance exists between the
sizes of holes and the shaft. In this type of fit, the minimum permitted diameter
of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diameter of the hole. In case
of this type of fit, the members are intended to be permanently attached.
Ex: Bearing bushes, Keys & key ways.

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Transition Fit:
In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole is greater than the
smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, such that a
small positive or negative clearance exists between the shaft & hole.
Ex: Coupling rings, Spigot in mating holes, etc.

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Systems of Fit:

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System of Fits
Hole basis system
- Basic hole is chosen
&
Different Fits are obtained
by changing shaft size

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Shaft basis system

-Basic shaft is chosen
&
Different Fits are obtained
by changing hole size

Hole basis Systems :

A system of fits in which the design size of the hole is the basic size and the
allowance, if any, is applied to the shaft.
Preferred fit is a system in which the basic diameter is the minimum size.
Fundamental deviation is specified by the upper-case letter H.

Shaft basis Systems :

A system of fits in which the design size of the shaft is the basic size and the
allowance, if any is applied to the hole.
Preferred fit is a system in which the basic diameter is the maximum size of the
shaft.
Fundamental deviation is given by the lowercase letter h.

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To obtain different types of fits, it is general practice to vary

tolerance zone of one of the mating parts
HOLE BASED SYSTEMSize of hole is kept constant,
shaft size is varied
to get different fits.

SHAFT BASED SYSTEMSize of shaft is kept constant,

hole size is varied
to get different fits.

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Hole basis system

Shaft basis system

1.Size of hole whose lower deviation is Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero(hzero(H-hole) is assumed as the basic size.
shaft) is assumed as basic size
2.Limits on the hole are kept constant and Limits on the shaft are kept constant and
those of shaft are varied to obtain desired those on the hole are varied to have necessary
type of fit.
fit
3.Hole basis system is preferred in mass
production, because it is convenient and less
costly to make a hole of correct size due to
availability of standard drills and reamers

This system is not suitable for mass

production because it is convenient, time
consuming and costly to make a shaft of
correct size

4.It is much more easy to vary the shaft It is rather difficult to vary the hole sizes
according to the fit required
according to the fit required
5.It requires less amount of capital and It needs large amounts of capital and storage
storage space for holes needed to produce space for large number of tools required to
shafts of different sizes
produce holes of different sizes
6.Gauging of shafts can be easily and Being internal measurement, gauging of holes
conveniently done with adjustable gap cannot be easily and conveniently done.
gauges.

Designation of Holes, Shafts and Fits

A hole or a shaft is completely described if the basic size, followed by the
appropriate letter and the number of tolerance grade is given.
1. A 50 mm H-hole, with the tolerance grade of IT7 is written as 50H7.
2. A 50 mm f-shaft with the tolerance grade IT8 is given by 50 f8
. A fit is designated by the basic size common to both the hole and the shaft
followed by symbols corresponding to each element, the hole is quoted first.
. Thus, if the basic size is 50mm, the hole is H7 and the shaft is f8, then the fit
can be indicated as 50 H7f8.

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Interchangeability:
Interchangeability occurs when one part in an assembly can be substituted for
a similar part which has been made to the same drawing. Interchangeability is
possible only when certain standards are strictly followed.
Universal interchangeability means the parts to be assembled are from two
different manufacturing sources.
Local interchangeability means all the parts to be assembled are made in the
same manufacturing unit.

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Selective Assembly:
Selective Assembly:
In selective assembly, the parts are graded according to the size and only
matched grades of mating parts are assembled. This technique is most suitable
where close fit of two components assembled is required.
Selective assembly provides complete protection against non-conforming
assemblies and reduces machining costs as close tolerances can be maintained.
Suppose some parts (shafts & holes) are manufactured to a tolerance of 0.01
mm, then an automatic gauge can separate them into ten different groups of
0.001 mm limit for selective assembly of the individual parts. Thus high quality
and low cost can be achieved.
Selective assembly is used in aircraft, automobile industries where tolerances
are very narrow and not possible to manufacture at reasonable costs.

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Fundamental deviation for P hole = -(IT7 + 0 to 5)

IT 7 = 16 i
i=1.258 m
16i= 16 * 1.258 = 21 m
Fundamental deviation =-(21 + 5)=-25.128
Tolerance value for P7 =IT7=16i = 21 m

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20.000
-25m
P-hole

h-shaft

13m

21m

Fit:
Max. clearance= Max. hole - Min. Shaft=19.975-19.987=- 0.012m
Min. clearance= Min. hole- Max. shaft =19.954-20.000=- 0.046m
The fit is interference.

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Linear Measurement :
Linear measurement includes the measurement of lengths, diameters, heights and
thickness.
The basic principle of linear measurement (mechanical type) is that of comparison
with standard dimensions on a suitably engraved instrument or device.
Linear measuring instruments are categorized depending upon their accuracy. The two
categories are non-precision instruments and precision instruments.
Non-precision instruments include steel rule, caliper divider, and telescopic gauge that
are used to measure to the line graduations of a rule. Precision instruments include
micrometers, vernier calipers, height gauges and slip gauges.
A wide variety of electrical measuring devices is also available. Electric measuring
devices are mainly transducers, i.e. they transform the displacement into suitable
measurable parameter like voltage and current.
Some of the displacement transducers are strain gauges, linear variable differential
transformers (LVDT) and potentiometers.
This unit will discuss different type of linear measuring devices and comparators.

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NON-PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Non-precision instruments are limited to the measurement of parts to a visible
line graduation on the instrument used. There are several non-precision
measuring devices. They are used where high measurement accuracy is not
required.

Steel Rule
It is the simplest and most common measuring instruments in inspection. The
principle behind steel rule is of comparing an unknown length to the one
previously calibrated. The rule must be graduated uniformly throughout its
length.
Rules are made in 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm length. There are rules that
have got some attachment and special features with them to make their use
more versatile.

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Slip Gauges or guage blocks

Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross section of 30
mm face length &10 mm face width as shown in fig.

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Slip gauges are blocks of steel that have been hardened and stabilized by
heat treatment.
They are ground and lapped to size to very high standards of accuracy and
surface finish.
A gauge block (also known Johansson gauge, slip gauge, or Jo block) is a
precision length measuring standard consisting of a ground and lapped metal
or ceramic block. Slip gauges were invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist
Carl Edward Johansson.

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When correctly cleaned and wrung together, the individual slip gauges adhere to each other by
molecular attraction and, if left like this for too long, a partial cold weld will take place. If this is
allowed to occur, the gauging surface will be irreparable after use, hence the gauges should be
separated carefully by sliding them apart. They should then be cleaned, smeared with petroleum
jelly (Vaseline) and returned to their case.
Protector Slips:
In addition, some sets also contain protector slips that are 2.50mm thick and are made from a
hard, wear resistant material such as tungsten carbide. These are added to the ends of the slip
gauge stack to protect the other gauge blocks from wear. Allowance must be made of the
thickness of the protector slips when they are used.
Wringing of Slip Gauges:
Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the required dimension. In order to achieve the
maximum accuracy the following precautions must be taken.
Use the minimum number of blocks.
Wipe the measuring faces clean using soft clean chamois leather.
Wring the individual blocks together by first pressing at right angles, sliding & then twisting.

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INDIAN STANDARD ON SLIP GAUGES (IS 2984-1966)

Slip gauges are graded according to their accuracy as Grade 0, Grade I & Grade II.
Grade II is intended for use in workshops during actual production of components,
tools & gauges.
Grade I is of higher accuracy for use in inspection departments.
Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard rooms for periodic calibration of Grade
I & Grade II gauges.
M-87 set of slip gauges :

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Selection of Slip Gauges

Standard procedure is followed in selecting slip gauges. It should be such that
minimum number of slip gauges is chosen for combination of blocks depending
on the type of set available. The procedure will be clear if we explain it with an
example :
Let us consider the case where we have to arrange a dimension of 56.421 mm and
normal sets of slip gauges are available.
Always the last decimal point is to be considered first, i.e. 0.001 mm. Since gauge
of 0.001 mm is not available, 1.001 mm slip gauge is to be selected.
The dimension left now is 56.421 1.001 = 55.42 mm.

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Now considering the second decimal place, slip gauge with 1.02 mm height is
selected.
The dimension left is 55.42 1.02 = 54.4 mm.
Next for 54.4 mm, slip gauge with 1.4 mm is to be chosen and then 3.0 mm gauge.
Finally, 50 mm gauge is to be chosen
Thus, we have 50.000 + 3.000 + 1.400 + 1.020 + 1.001 = 56.421 mm. All these five
slip gauges are wrung properly to get the required dimension.
If special set of gauges be used, the combination in this case would have been
50.000 + 5.420 + 1.001 = 56.421 mm.

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MICROMETERS
Micrometer is one of the most widely used precision instruments. It is
primarily used to measure external dimensions like diameters of shafts,
thickness of parts etc. to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The essential parts of the
instruments shown in Figure, consist of
Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle
Graduated sleeve or barrel
Thimble
Ratchet or friction stop
Spindle clamp

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Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle
Graduated sleeve or barrel
Thimble
Ratchet or friction stop
Spindle clamp

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The frame is made of steel, malleable cast iron or light alloy. The anvil shall
protrude from the frame for a distance of at least 3-mm in order to permit the
attachment of measuring wire support. The spindle does the actual measuring
and possesses the threads of 0.5 mm pitch.
The barrel has datum and fixed graduations Thimble is tubular cover fastened
with the spindle. The beveled edge of the spindle is divided into 50 equal parts,
every fifth being numbered. The ratchet is a small extension to the thimble. It
slips when the pressure on the screw exceeds a certain amount.
It produces uniform reading and prevents damage or distortion of the
instruments. The spindle clamp is used to lock the instrument at any desired
setting.

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Procedure for Reading in a Micrometer

The graduation on the barrel is in two parts divided by a line along the axis of
the barrel called the reference line. The graduation above the reference is
graduated in 1 mm intervals.
The first and every fifth are long and numbered 0, 5, 10, 15, etc. The lower
graduations are marked in 1 mm intervals but each graduation shall be placed at
the middle of the two successive upper graduations to be read
0.5 mm.
The thimble advances a distance of 0.5 mm in one complete rotation. It is called
the pitch of the micrometer. The thimble has a scale of 50 divisions around its
circumference. Thus, one smallest division of the circular scale is equivalent to
longitudinal movement of 0.5 1/50 mm = 0.01mm. It is the least count of the
micrometer.

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The job is measured between the end of the spindle and the anvil that is fitted to
the frame. When the micrometer is closed, the line marked zero on the thimble
coincides with the line marked zero on the barrel. If the zero graduation does
not coincide, the micrometer requires adjustment.
To take a reading from the micrometer, (1) the number of main divisions in
millimeters above the reference line, (2) the number of sub-divisions below the
reference line exceeding only the upper graduation, and (3) the number of
divisions in the thimble have to be noted down. For example if a micrometer
shows a reading of 8.78 mm when
8 divisions above the reference line

= 8.00 mm

1 division below the reference line

= 0.50 mm

28 thimble divisions

= 0.28 mm
8.78 mm

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The various important terms used in connection with micrometers are given
below.
Backlash
It is the lack of motion or lost motion of the spindle when the rotation of thimble
is changed in direction.
Measuring Range
It is the total travel of the measuring spindle for a given micrometer.
Cumulative Error
It is the deviation of measurement from the nominal dimension determined at
any optional point of the measuring range. It includes the effect of all possible
individual errors such as errors of the thread, errors of measuring faces etc. It
can be determined by using slip gauges.

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Various types of micrometers

Inside Micrometer Caliper
The measuring tips of inside micrometer are constituted by jaws with contact
surface, which are hardened and ground to a radius. Unlike the conventional
micrometer, an inside micrometer does not have any U-shape frame and spindle.
One of the jaws is held stationary at the end and second one moves by the
movement of the thimble. A locknut is provided to check the movement of the
movable jaw. This facilitates the inspection of small internal dimension.

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Inside Micrometer
The inside micrometer is intended for internal measurement to an accuracy of
0.001 mm. In principle, it is similar to an external micrometer and is used for
measuring holes with a diameter over 50 cm. It consists of :
measuring unit
extension rod with or without spacing collar, and
handle.
When the micrometer screw is turned in the barrel, the distance between the
measuring faces of the micrometer can vary from 50 to 63 mm. To measure the
holes with a diameter over 63 mm, the micrometer is fitted with extension rods.
The extension rods of the sizes 13, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 600 mm are in
common use.

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Measuring the Inside Diameter of a Hole by an Inside Micrometer

(1) Micrometer,
(2) Anvil,
(3) Handle and &
(4) Extension Rod

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The measuring screw has a pitch of 0.5 mm. The barrel or sleeve is provided
with a scale of 13 mm long and graduated into half-millimeter and millimeter
divisions as in the external micrometer.

A second scale is engraved on the beveled edge of the thimble. The beveled edge
of the thimble is divided into 50 scale divisions round the circumference.

Thus, on going through one complete turn, the thimble moves forward or
backward by a thread pitch of 0.5 mm, and one division of its scale is, therefore,
equivalent to a movement of
0.5 X1/50 = 0.01 mm.

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Stick Micrometers
Stick micrometers are used for measurement of longer internals length. A series of
extension rods will permit continuous range of measurement up to the required
length. It is connected with a 150 mm or 300 mm micrometer unit fitted with a
micrometer of 25 mm range and having rounded terminal faces. Screw joints are used
for joining the end-piece, extension rod and the measuring unit. The extension rod is
generally hollow and has minimum external diameter of 14 mm. The accuracy of this
instruments is in order of 0.005 mm. Figure shows the parts of a stick micrometer

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Screw Thread Micrometer Caliper

The shape of a Screw thread Micrometer is more or less like an ordinary
micrometer with the difference that it is equipped with a pointed spindle and a
double V-anvil, both correctly shaped to contact the screw thread of the work to
be gauged.
The angle of the V-anvil and the conical point at the end of the spindle
correspond to the included angle of the profile of the thread.
The extreme point of the cone is rounded so that it will not bear on the root
diameter at the bottom of the thread, and similarly clearance is provided at the
bottom of the groove in the V-anvil so that it will not bear on the thread crest.
The spindle point of such a micrometer can be applied to the thread of any pitch
provided the form or included angle is always same.

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Groove Micrometer
It is used for measuring grooves, recesses and shoulders located inside a bore.
Standard discs with diameter 12.7 mm and 6.35 mm are used to measure the
locations inside a small bore. It is also capable of measuring an edge of a land
and groove.

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Digital Micrometer
Digital micrometer is capable of giving direct reading up to 0.001 mm. The
spindle thread is hardened, ground and lapped in this type of micrometers. The
positive locking clamp ensures locking of spindle at any desired setting.
Operation is very simple with push button controls for Zero reset and
indication hold.

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Comparator :
Comparators can give precision measurements, with consistent accuracy by
eliminating human error. They are employed to find out, by how much the
dimensions of the given component differ from that of a known datum. If the
indicated difference is small, a suitable magnification device is selected to
obtain the desired accuracy of measurements. It is an indirect type of
instrument and used for linear measurement. If the dimension is less or greater,
than the standard, then the difference will be shown on the dial. It gives only
the difference between actual and standard dimension of the workpiece. To
check the height of the job H2 ,with the standard job of height H1

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Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with a standard job in
position as shown in Figure(a). The reading H1is taken with the help of a
plunger. Then the standard job is replaced by the work-piece to be checked
and the reading H2 is taken. If H1and H2 are different, then the change i~ the
dimension will be shown on the dial of the comparator. Thus difference is then
magnified 1000 to 3000 X to get the clear variation in the standard and actual
job.
In short, Comparator is a device which
(1) Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made
with some standard value.

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Classification:
1.

Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.

2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works by using high pressure air,

valves, back pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using lens, mirrors, light
source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier, digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of the above types can give
the best result.

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Characteristics of Good Comparators:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

It should be compact.
It should be easy to handle.
It should give quick response or quick result.
It should be reliable, while in use.
There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
Its weight must be less.
It must be cheaper.
It must be easily available in the market.
It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
The design should be robust.
It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform
response.
12. It should have less maintenance.
13. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
14. It should be free from backlash and wear.

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Mechanical Comparator:
It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required. It
employs mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the
measuring stylus. The movement is due to the difference between the
standard and the actual dimension being checked

The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all the mechanical
comparators is by means of levers, gear trains or combination of these. They
are available of different make and each has it's own characteristic. The
various types of mechanical comparators are dial indicator, rack and pinion,
sigma comparator, Johansson mikrokator.

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Dial Indicator :
It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the
spindle at the contact point is multiplied through a system of gears and
levers. It is indicated on the face of the dial by a dial finger. Dial indicators
basically consists of a body with a round graduated dial and a contact point
connected with a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face indicates
the amount of movement of the contact point. They are designed for use on
a wide range of standard measuring devices such as dial box gauges, portal
dial, hand gauges, dial depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial indicator
snap gauge.

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Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm. The movement mechanism of

the instrument is housed in a metal case for it's protection. The large dial scale
is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip
gauges representing the basic size of part.

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Requirements of Good Dial Indicator:

1.

It should give trouble free and dependable readings over a long period.

2.

The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain
constant over the whole range.

3.

The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of the measuring

plunger.

4.

The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various
sizes and ranges

5.

The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction

without affecting the accuracy.

6.

The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when
the readings are being taken.

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Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality, roundness and
taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as intension and
compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism, squareness and
alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between
the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to check the parallelism of
shaper arm with table surface or vice.

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