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Signal Processing

Often in geophysical methods, our data comes in the form

of a signal (e.g., seismic methods)


We process this signal in ways to extract meaningful
information
Data (signal) Processing Interpretation

Analog and Digital Signals


Signals can be grouped into two types: analog and digital
Analog signals, f(t), are continuous in time domain
Digital signals, g(t), are discrete functions and are

discontinuous in time
In signal processing, we seek to represent f(t) using digital

approximations, g(t) b/c there are many advantages

Digital signals
We replace f(t) with values

at fixed time intervals,

Digital Signals
To faithfully represent f(t), we need to think about
1. sampling precision (dynamic range)
2. sampling frequency(# of samples per unit time or distance)

Experiment design must take both into consideration


Target of interest ( determines imaging resolution)
Available instrumentation (sensor characteristics)
Time and money

Digital signals
Sampling precision (dynamic range) = Amax/Amin
Expressed in decibel scale
10 log10 [Pmax/Pmin] dB
Recall: (Power) is proportional to (Amplitude)2
e.g., 10 log10 [Amax/Amin] 2 = 20 log10 [Amax/Amin] dB
If a digital scheme measures amplitudes:1 unit=Amin to 1024 units=Amax
Dynamic range = 20 log10 [1024/1] 60 dB

The higher the dynamic range, the more faithful g(t) will be to f(t)

Digital signals
Sampling frequency: # of sampling points per unit time(t)

or distance (x)
Goal: We seek the fewest # of points to faithfully
represent f(t) with g(t).
To estimate, use Nyquist frequency:
fn = sampling frequency

The Nyquist frequency => any f fn will be faithfully

represented by g(t)

Digital signals
Ex.1 We sample our signal every 2 ms => sampling f of

500 samples/second
This means we can preserve frequencies 250 Hz = fn
Ex. 2 Assume 100 Hz signal
If we wish to preserve all f 100 Hz, we must take at least 200
samples/sec

Digital signals
Pitfalls
If sampling f is too low => aliasing
If sampling f is too high=> increases processing time, may

add noise

Digital signals
Aliasing
(a) Faithfully represents

signal
(b) Under-sampling results
in waveform that does not
resemble original and is
much lower in frequency

Digital signals
Schematic way to visualize aliasing
fn = 250 Hz => will preserve all f 250 Hz
What happens to other frequencies? Will be folded into

Nyquist Interval

Digital signals
Some instruments have any-aliasing filters to avoid this
problem and broaden spectrum
Spectral Analysis of
waveforms
Periodic (regular, repeating)
vs
Transient (non-repeating)

Spectral analysis
Fourier analysis: any periodic waveform can be

decomposed into a series of sines and cosines expressed


as
N/T, where N = whole integer; T = period of the signal
If N= 1 (1/T) => fundamental frequency
N/T => higher modes or harmonics

Fourier transform

=
=

Fourier transform

Fourier transform
examples

Transforms
Why use transforms?
Ex. Diff equation simpler to solve in frequency domain, then

transform back to time domain


Ex. May wish to analyze which frequencies are present in

data and how much energy is partitioned into those freqs


Ex. May wish to filter out unwanted frequencies
Digitization provides a means to deal with transient

waveforms

Transforms
Some other types of transforms:

Laplace, Hilbert, Hankel, Mellin


adding digital waveforms = convolution
(t) = g(t) * f(t)

Ex. Earthquake signal


S(u,t) * E(,z) * R(v,z) * I (f) = recorded signal
(Source) * (earth structure)* (receiver) * (instrument response)
= (filtered output)

Convolution (number of terms = n + m )


gi (i: 0-> m); fj (j: 1->n)

f [4,3,2,1] * g [2,0,1]

Method 2

Method 1
m

Yk = i=0 gifk-i

Convolution
Method 3

Cross-correlation is a convolution

Resonant frequencies
Many phenomena have resonant periods
e.g. Buildings (1sec/story)
Dams
Bridges
Sedimentary basins
Glaciers

We can use FFT to get a power spectrum to see which

frequencies are present and how much energy is in each


frequency band

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