Models of

Public Policy Formulation

Why public policy formulated.

Problem identification: A set of conditions that is perceived to

jeopardize the general well being of society.

Once policy problems is identified the objectives of the policy are

established, usually expressed in terms of ends which are desirable.

Generally public policy is aimed at reducing problem, the objective

must be acceptable to both those administering the policy and those
affected by it.

Figure 1. Linear Model of the

Public Policy process
Prediction
And
prescription

Policymaker

Societal Centered Forces

Classes
Interest Groups
Parties & Voters

Source: Meier 1991

Policy Choice

State Centered Forces

Technocrats
Bureaucrats
State Interests

Implementation

Policy
outcome

Figure 2.
Phases of the policy process

On Agenda
Issues

Decision for
Reform

Not on Agenda

Decision
Against
reform

Agenda Phase

Decision
Phase

Source: Grindle & Thomas

Successful
Implementation

Unsuccessful
Implementation
Implementation
Phase

Actors
and their roles
ACTOR

Technocrats
Bureaucrats
Interest Groups
Politicians
Donors

Source: Walt and Gilson, 1994

ROLE

Knowledge
Institution
Representation
Power
Influence

Public Policy Process

/Formulation
Policy
Terminology

Formal
Definition

Common
sense

Ist stage
problem
formation

Relief is
sought from
a situation
that
produces a
human
need,
deprivation,
or
dissatisfacti
on

2nd stage

3rd stage

4th stage

5th stage

Policy Agenda

Policy
formulation

Policy
adoption

Policy
Policy
implementati Evaluation
on

Problems
among
many, that
receive the
government
s serious
attention

Getting the Getting the

govt. to see govt. to
the problem begin to act
on the
problem

Developme
nt of
pertinent
and
acceptable
proposed
courses of
action for
dealing with
public
problems.
The govt.s
proposed
solution to
the problem

Developme
nt of
support for
a specific
proposal
such that
the policy
legitimized
or
authorized.
Getting the
govt. to
accept a
particular
solution to
the problem

Application
of the policy
by the
government
s
bureaucrati
c machinery
to the
problem

Applying
the govt.s
policy to the
problem

Source: Public Policy and Politics in America by James E. Anderson etal

6th

stage

Attempt by
the govt. to
determine
whether or
not the
policy has
been
effective

Did the
policy work

Public
Policy Formulation
Mostly policies suffer at this stage due to
reasons:
1.Insufficient number of well trained personnel and
inadequate resources.
In other words for the successful implementation of the
policy there should be equilibrium between the objectives
and resources.

2.Cultural dichotomy between traditional and

modern forces.

Evaluation

A problems perceived

The consequences of
Alternative Strategies are
estimated
The preferred Strategy of
Plan implemented
The consequences of the
implemented Plan are investigated

Evaluation of performance

Alternative strategies to attain

The objectives are identified

Summative

A set of policy objective established

Formative

Evaluation of Strategies

Model of public
policy formulation and evaluation

The consequences of
Alternative Strategies are
estimated
The preferred Strategy of Plan
implemented
The consequences of the
implemented Plan are investigated

Evaluation of performance

Alternative strategies to attain

The objectives are identified

Summative

Formative

Evaluation of
Strategies

A set of policy objective established

Summative

A problems
perceived
Empirical Analysis of the
nature/Extent /Magnitude of the
problems
A range of potential policy
Objective is outlined
Evaluation of performance

Formative

Evaluation
of
Strategies

Figure2. Refined Model

of public policy formulation and evaluation

Factor that influence

Public Policy Implementation:
Environmental factors:
Policy making cant be adequately understood without
understanding environmental factors.
These are:
Political Culture
Public Opinion
Social System
Economic system.

Factor that influence

Public Policy Implementation
Political culture:
Political culture refers to the set of political beliefs and values
that sustain any political system. And it is the political system
that determines the decision making.
In political culture, goodness, badness, desirability and
undesirability of good action or bad action.
Sociologist Robin Williams has described major value
orientation in America society such as individual freedom,
equity, progress and efficiency. These values and other such as
democracy, individualism, humanitarianism and material
achievements have significance for policy making.

Political Culture
Political cultures differs from society to society due to patterns of
development, environmental conditions and historical factors.
It is political culture within which decision making occurs.
In democratic culture official are hold accountable
Old adage People have right to be heard and official have a
duty to hear.
Such conditions contribute towards the existence of
participatory culture

Public Opinion
Public opinion refers to the expression of public attitudes or beliefs
about current social, economic and political issues.
The articulation of opinion depends on the type of political culture.
The articulation of public opinion is determined by the public interest
which in most cases is not applied equally.
While examining the impact of public opinion on policy making V.O
Key observes:
Many, if not most, policy decisions by legislatures and by other
authorities exercising broad discretion are made under circumstances in
which extremely small proportions of the general public have any
awareness of the particular issue, much less any understanding of the
consequences of the decision.

Social System
Societies are not generally homogenous, rather
consist of groups social groups with varying
degree of social, political and economic
influence.
In pluralist society such groups can mount heavy
pressure on the political system.
And serve as major source of demands for
policy making.

Economic system
Economic activities varies from society to society. Some
society have very simple economic system but some
have very complex one such as US.
Economic activities are major source of conflict in
modern societies.
And those possess economic means control political
power.
In most of the societies the policy making is the elite
activity and policies are fashioned in way that reflects
elite aspiration.

Micro and
Macro politics
Micropolitics
Refers to the attempts made by particular companies
or communities to secure favorable govt. action for
their own.
Micropolitics involves groups or communities at
grassroots level

Macropolitics
It involves the community as whole and the leaders of
the govt. in the formation of public policy.
The participants in the macropolitical arena include
president, executive departments , MPs and
communication and media persons.

Actors in
decision making
Governmental
Executive
Legislature
Judiciary

Non-governmental
Civil Society and NGO

International
Countries and International Institutions such
as UN, IMF, World Bank and etc.

Conclusion

Conclusion