The Statistical Imagination

Chapter 11:
Bivariate Relationships:
t-test for Comparing the
Means of Two Groups

2008 McGraw-Hill

Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate or two variable analysis
involves searching for statistical
relationships between two variables
A statistical relationship between two
variables asserts that the measurements of
one variable tend to consistently change
with the measurements of the other,
making one variable a good predicator of
the other
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Independent and
Dependent Variables
The predictor variable is the
independent variable
The predicted variable is the
dependent variable

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Three Approaches to Measuring

Statistical Relationships
1. Difference of means testing
(Ch. 11 & 12)
2. Counting the frequencies of joint
occurrences of attributes of two
nominal/ordinal variables (Ch. 13)
3. Measuring the correlation between two
interval/ratio variables (Ch. 14 & 15)
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Difference of Means Testing

Compares means of an interval/ratio
variable among the categories or groups of a
nominal/ordinal variable
Chapter 11. The two-group difference of
means test for a dependent interval/ratio
and an independent dichotomous
nominal/ordinal variable
Chapter 12. Analysis of variance to test for
a difference among three or more group
means
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Frequencies of Joint Occurrences

of Two Nominal Variables
Chapter 13. Chi-square test to
determine a relationship between two
nominal variables
Web site Chapter Extensions to
Chapter 13: Gamma test to
determine a relationship between two
ordinal variables
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Measuring Correlation
Chapter 14-15. Correlation to
determine a relationship between two
interval/ratio variables
Web site Extensions to Chapter 15:
Rank-order correlation test to
determine a relationship between two
numbered ordinal level variables
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2-Group Difference of Means Test:

Independent Samples (t-test)
Useful for testing a hypothesis
that the means of a variable differ
between two populations
comprised of different groups of
individuals

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When to Use an
Independent Samples t-test
Two variables from one population and sample,
one interval/ratio and one dichotomous
nominal/ordinal
Or: There are two populations and samples and
one interval/ratio variable; the samples are
representative of their population
The interval/ratio variable is typically the
dependent variable
The groups do not consist of same subjects
Population variances are assumed equal
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Features of an
Independent Samples t-test
The t-test focuses on the computed
difference between two sample
means and addresses the question of
whether the observed difference
between the sample means reflects a
real difference in the population
means or is simply due to sampling
error
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Features of an Independent
Samples t-test (cont.)
Step 1. Stating the H0:
The mean of population 1 equals the
mean of population 2
That is, there is no difference in the
means of the interval/ratio variable, X,
for the two populations
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Features of an Independent
Samples t-test (cont.)
Step 2. The sampling distribution is the
approximately normal t-distribution
The pooled variance formula for the standard
error is used when we can assume that
population variances are equal
The separate variance formula for the
standard error is used when we cannot
assume that population variances are equal
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Features of an Independent
Samples t-test (cont.)
Step 4. The effect is the difference
between the sample means
The test statistic is the effect divided
by the standard error
The p-value is estimated using the
t-distribution table
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Assumption of Equality
of Population Variances
When one sample variance is not larger than twice
the size of the other, this suggests that the two
population variances are equal and we assume
equality of variances
We may use the pooled variance estimate of the
standard error
Equality of variances is also termed homogeneity
of variances or homoscedasticity
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Assumption of Equality
of Population Variances (cont.)
Heterogeneity of variances, or
heteroscedasticity, is when variances
of the two populations appear unequal
Here we use the separate variance
estimate of the standard error and
calculate degrees of freedom
differently
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Test for Nonindependent or

Matched-Pair Samples
This is a test of the difference of
means between two sets of scores of
the same research subjects, such as
two questionnaire items or scores
measured at two points in time
This test is especially useful for
before-after or test-retest
experimental designs
2008 McGraw-Hill

When to Use a
Nonindependent Samples t-test
There is one population with a representative
sample from it
There are two interval/ratio variables with the
same score design
Or: There is a single variable measured
twice for the same sample subjects
There is a target value of the variable
(usually zero) to which we may compare the
mean of the differences between the two
sets of scores
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Features of a Nonindependent
Samples or Matched-Pair t-test
Step 1. Stating the H0:
The mean of differences between
the scores in a population is
equal to zero

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Nonindependent Samples or
Matched-Pair t-test (cont.)
Step 2. The sampling distribution is
the approximately normal
t-distribution
The standard error is calculated as
the standard deviation of differences
between scores divided by the square
root of n - 1
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Nonindependent Samples or
Matched-Pair t-test (cont.)
Step 4. The effect is the mean of
differences between scores
The test statistic is the effect
divided by the standard error
The p-value is estimated using
the t-distribution table
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Distinguishing Between Practical

and Statistical Significance
A hypothesis test determines significance
in terms of likely sampling error whether
a sample difference is so large that there
probably is a difference in the populations
Practical significance is an issue of
substance. A statistically significant
difference may not be practically significant

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Practical and Statistical

Significance (cont.)
E.g., a hypothesis test reveals a statistically
significant difference in the mean number of
personal holidays of men and women in a
corporation: women average 0.1 days per year
more. The test tells us with 95% confidence
that the 0.1 day difference in the samples truly
exists in the populations
However, is one-tenth day per year
meaningful? Might such a small statistical
effect be accounted for by some other
variable?
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Four Aspects of
Statistical Relationships
When examining a relationship between
two variables, we can address four things:
existence, direction, strength, and practical
applications
These four aspects provide a checklist for
what to say in writing up the results of a
hypothesis test
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Existence of a Relationship
Existence: On the basis of statistical
analysis of a sample, can we conclude that
a relationship exists between two variables
among all subjects in the population?
Established by rejection of the H0
Testing for the existence of a relationship is
the first step in any analysis. If a
relationship is found not to exist, the other
three aspects of a relationship are irrelevant
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Direction of a Relationship
Direction: Can the dependent variable
be expected to increase or decrease
as the independent variable
increases?
Direction is stated in the alternative
hypothesis (HA) of step 1 of the six
steps of statistical inference
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Strength of a Relationship
Strength: To what extent are
errors reduced in predicting the
scores of a dependent variable
when an independent variable is
used as a predictor?

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Practical Applications
of a Relationship
Practical Applications: In practical,
everyday terms, how does
knowledge of a relationship
between two variables help us
understand and predict outcomes
of the dependent variable?
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Existence of a Relationship for

2-Group Difference of Means Test
Existence: Established by using
independent samples or
nonindependent samples t-test
When the H0 is rejected, a
relationship exists

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Direction of a Relationship for

2-Group Difference of Means Test
For the two group tests, direction
and strength are not relevant
Direction: Not relevant
Strength: Not relevant

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Practical Applications of Relationship

for a 2-Group Difference of Means Test
Practical Applications: Describe
the effect of the test in everyday
terms, where the effect of the
independent variable on the
dependent variable is the
difference between sample
means
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Statistical Follies
Avoid a common tendency:
Difference in means testing is so
widely used that researchers
often focus too heavily on mean
differences while ignoring the
differences in variances (or
standard deviations)
2008 McGraw-Hill