Unit 1.

The Ancien
Rgime and the
Enlightenment

1. THE ANCIEN RGIME

The Ancien Rgime is a period that covers the 17th
and 18th centuries. During this period, a series of
political, economic and social transformations took
place. These changes brought about the start of the
Modern Age.
During the Ancien Rgime, key aspects of the
feudal system were modified by political, economic
and social changes.
- European monarchs became more powerful. They
forced the feudal lords to accept their authority and
exerted their power over all three estates of the
realm. As a result, absolute monarchy was
established.
- New forms of skilled craftsmanship and increase
trade created a more open economy, compared to the
closed economy that had characterized feudalism.

- The bourgeoisie became wealthier and

more powerful, due to their control of craft
production and trade.
- Humanism developed. It was a new way of
thinking that replaced the conservative
religious thought of the Middle Ages. It
placed human beings, rather than God, at
the centre of the Universe.
- Advances in science and philosophy began
to overcome the desire to keep knowledge
secret that had characterized the Middle
Ages
- New artistic styles emerged. These were
distinct from the type of art that was
promoted exclusively by the Catholic Church.

1.1. The politics of the Ancien

Rgime
In the 17 century, absolute monarchy came

to
predominate in Western Europe. It was called absolute
because the crowd had unlimited authority, which was
believed to come from God
The model for absolute monarchy was Louis XIV of
France (1673-1715). He exerted his authority in various
ways: he did not call the Estates General, so that it
would not be able to limit his power. He also controlled
the government and intervened in the economy,
introducing protectionist measures.
In contrast, Spains power began to decline during
the 17th-century reigns of the Lesser Hapsburgs (Felipe
III, Felipe IV and Carlos II). The main cause of this
decline was Spains defeat in the Thirty Years War,
which led to significant territorial losses, including that
of the United Provinces.
th

Parliamentary monarchy in England

In England, Charles I faced opposition from
Parliament when he tried to rule as an absolute
monarch. This led to a civil war between the
supporters of the king (Royalists) and the supporters of
Parliament (Parliamentarians).
Charles I was defeated and executed, and in 1649
a republic was established under the control of
Parliamentarian commander Oliver Cromwell. After
Cromwells death, the absolute monarchy was reestablished under Charles II, who was followed by
James II.
In 1688 tensions between Parliament and James II
led to the Glorious Revolution. Parliament offered the
throne to William of Orange. He swore to uphold the
Bill of Rights, a document written by Parliament which
became the precedent for similar documents in other
countries.

This led to the establishment of a parliamentary

monarchy, in which the monarchs powers were
limited by Parliament. In 1707, the parliaments of
England and Scotland signed a series of agreements
which unified the two countries. Together they
became known as the United Kingdom of Great
Britain.
Parliament was divided into two chambers, based
on social differences between their members. The
upper chamber, called the House of Lords,
represented the nobility and clergy. The lower
chamber, called the House of Commons, represented
the rest of the population, but its members were
wealthy men, such as bankers and merchants.

2. The economy and society of

the Ancien Rgime
The Ancien Rgimes economy had the following
characteristics:
- Traditional agriculture with very low productivity.
Agriculture was nor commercial: people farmed to
meet their own needs and used outdated techniques
and tools.
- The dominance of the guilds. These were
associations of craftsmen in the same trade that
regulated aspects such as working hours, prices,
wages and tools.
- Domestic trade grew very little due to internal
customs duties and the poor quality of the roads.
However, foreign trade was expanding due to the
discovery of America and the establishment of new
sea routes to Asian markets. These developments led
to the establishment of large empires, such as the

During the 17th century, Europes absolute

monarchs imposed a new economic system called
mercantilism. Mercantilism was based on the idea
that a countrys wealth depended on how much gold
and silver it possessed.
In order to accumulate more of these precious
metals, monarchs implemented protectionist policies.
They limited imports and encouraged exports by
making foreign products very expensive. This way
they hoped to keep gold and silver in the country.
The estates of realm continued to be dominant
form of social organization in Europe during the
Ancien Rgime. The First and Second Estates (the
clergy and nobility) maintained their traditional
privileges, while the Third Estate (the ordinary
people) did not have any privileges.

- The nobility and the clergy did not pay

tax. They maintained their economic power
by collecting tithes from the peasants (onetenth of the crops) and through the income
they received from their lands. However, the
lesser nobility and the lower clergy were
often very poor.
- The Third Estate had to pay tax. During
this period the differences between the
various groups which were part of the Third
Estate increased.
+ The upper middle class or bourgeoisie
composed of prominent merchants and
business owners became richer and more
powerful
as
the
European
economy
developed.

+ The lower middle class or petite

bourgeoisie composed mostly of small
merchants and craftsmen declined
because they could not compete with new
forms of production.
+ The peasantry and day labourers
suffered during the 17th century because
of poor harvests, rising prices and the
higher taxes which they had to pay to the
crown, nobility and clergy.

3. Philosophy, science and art in the

Ancien
Rgime
Rationalism
and empiricism were new
ways of thinking that emerged in the 17th
century.
The French philosopher Descartes (15961650) founded modern rationalism. According
to rationalism, human reason is the only valid
source of knowledge.
On the other hand, advocates of
empiricism, such as Locke (1632-1704) and
Hume
(1711-1776),
maintained
that
knowledge could only come from sensory
experience and from observation
Rationalism and empiricism combined to
become the basis of the scientific method,
which
led
to
significant
scientific

According to the scientific method,

knowledge of chemistry, medicine and other
science could be acquired and tested by
following these steps: observation and
measurement, the establishment of a
hypothesis, the demonstration or refutation of
the hypothesis, and the presentation of
conclusions.
As a result of the scientific method, there
were important advances in mathematics,
astronomy, physics and medicine.
- Astronomy: in 1609 Galileo Galilei used
the telescope to prove the heliocentric theory
that the Sun is at the centre of the Solar
System, and that the Earth revolves around it.

- Physics: in 1643 Evangelista Torricelli

invented the barometer to measure
atmospheric pressure. In 1666 Isaac Newton
used the scientific method to formulate the
law of universal gravitation.
- Medicine and biology. In 1674 Anton
Leeuwenhoek perfected the microscope. He
used it to observe red blood cells and
microorganism (bacteria) for the first time.
- Mathematics: in 1642 Blaise Pascal
invented the first mechanical calculator
capable of adding and subtracting.

4. The 18th century: the Enlightenment.

The 18th century was a time of transition
between the Early Modern age and the
Modern Age in Europe. During this period,
important changes took place which
contributed to the collapse of the Ancien
Rgime, thereby marking the end of the
Early Modern Age.
The Enlightenment was an important
intellectual movement and a new way of
thinking that emerged in Europe during the
18th century. Enlightement thinkers criticized
the political and social structures of the
Ancien Rgime. They were able to shape
some of the changes that took place in
these years.
The main principles of enlightenment

- Learning and teaching are essential.

People must learn as much as possible and
share their knowledge on order to educate
and enlighten society. This is why this
period is called the enlightenment.
- Reason is the only real source of
knowledge, rather that irrational beliefs and
dogma.
- Science and technological progress
would lead to economic growth and improve
peoples wellbeing.
- Equality and liberty are crucial. Many
Enlightened thinkers believed that a better
society would only be possible if all men were
free and equal before the law.

Enlightenment ideas were spread

through
the
academies,
books,
newspapers and salons, which were
special meeting organized in peoples
homes. Some enlightenment thinkers,
such as DAlembert and Diderot,
created an extensive collection of
writing called The encyclopedia. It
summarized knowledge from many
areas of study in alphabetical order.

4.1. The political ideas of the

Enlightenment
Enlightenment thinkers wanted to abolish
the estates system and make all citizens
equal before the law.
Enlightenment thinkers did not support
absolute monarchy and they proposed
measures to limit its power, such as the
separation of powers and popular sovereignty.
- Montesquieu argued for the separation of
powers. This meant that the three branches
of government (the legislative, executive and
judicial branches) should be separate from
one another. This would stop power being
concentrated in one person.

- Voltaire favoured a strong monarchy.

However, he also thought its power should
be limited by parliament.
- Rousseau introduced the idea of popular
sovereignty. He argued that power resided
with the people rather than the crown, and
that politics should be based on agreement
between the citizens and their government.

4.2. The economic ideas of the

Enlightenment
Enlightenment
thinkers
rejected
mercantilism. They advocated a new
economic doctrine called physiocracy.
Physiocracy is the belief that the wealth
of a nation derives from its natural
resources. Physiocrats believed that:
- Agriculture is a countrys main source
of wealth because it provides the products
needed for food and the raw materials for
craftsmanship.
- Craftsmanship and trade are secondary
activities, since they rely on agriculture.
- The state, that is to say, absolute
monarchs, should not intervene in the
economy, since protectionist measures

4.3. Economic liberalism

In the mid-18th century a new economic
doctrine called economic liberalism emerged.
It was based on the ideas of Scottish thinker
Adam Smith.
The basic principle of economic liberalism
is that the state should not intervene in the
processes of production or exchange of
goods. Instead, it should allow individual
business owners to create wealth.
As a result, economic liberals argued for:
- Freedom of production for business
owners. This would mean they could produce
as much as the market demanded.

- Free trade, which would mean the

exchange of goods between countries
without any restrictions.
- Free competition, which would force the
business owner to improve the quality of his
or her products and/or reduce prices in order
to sell.

5. Enlightened Despotism
Enlightenment despotism was a new form
of government that developed in some
European countries in the 18th century. Its
objective was to combine absolute monarchy
(despotism) with enlightenment ideas aimed
at modernizing the country and improving
peoples wellbeing.
Enlightened despots had the following
characteristics.
- They maintained their absolute power
through
centralized
governments
that
implemented their policies.
- They appointed Enlightenment thinkers
to important positions, for example as royal
ministers.

- They tried to make changes peacefully,

through education and new laws.
Examples of enlightened despots include
Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of
Austria, Frederick II of Prusia and Carlos III
of Spain (1759-1788). These monarchs
implemented a number of enlightened
reforms, such as the unification of the legal
system, the modernization of the army, and
the promotion of agriculture, industry and
education.
Enlightened despotism ultimately failed
as a form of government because it
maintained the privileges of the estates
system, and did not introduce reforms to
make all people free and equal before the

6. The 18th century in Spain: The

Bourbons in 18th-century
Political developments
Spain were the result of dynastic change, as
the Hapsburgs were replaced by the
Bourbons. Under the Bourbons government
in Spain became more centralized.
Carlos III was the last Spanish king of
Hapsburg line. He died without heirs,
creating a serious conflict over the
succession. This conflict became the War of
the Spanish Succession (1701-1714).
- Carlos II had named Philip of Anjou as
his successor to the Spanish throne. He was
from the Bourbon dynasty and was a
grandson of Louis XIV. Philip was supported
by the Crown of Castilla.

- Austria and Great Britain gave military

support to Archduke Charles of Austria, who
was a Hapsburg. He was supported by the
crown of Aragn, which feared that a
Bourbon king would limit the fueros.
The war ended with the Treaties of Utrech
and Rastatt (1713-1714). As a result of these
agreements:
- Austria gained lands from Spain,
including Milan and the Spanish Netherlands,
while Great Britain gained Gibraltar and
Menorca.
- Philip of Anjou became Felipe V, King of
Spain. This was the start of the Bourbon
dynasty in Spain.

Bourbon foreign policy in the 18th

century
During the 18th century, Spanish
monarchs tried to recover the lands they
had lost in the Treaties of Utrech and
Rastatt by participating in international
conflicts, such as the Seven Years War.
Spain invariably allied with France against
Great Britain, because these two powers
were struggling for control of the seas.
These alliances are known the Family
Compacts, as both countries were ruled by
Bourbons.

7. Economic changes in the 18th century

At the beginning of the 18th century,
European
economies
had
the
same
characteristics as in the earlier phases of the
Ancien Rgime. However, the reforms
introduced by enlightened monarchs led to
important changes in all sectors of the
economy.
During the 18th century, harvests improve
for a number of reasons:
- During the 18th century, harvests
improved for a number of reasons:
+ New agricultural techniques, such as
crop rotation, were more widely used, and
improved agricultural machinery increased
farmers productivity.

+ New crops were introduced, such as

potatoes and corn. These improved human
and animal nutrition.
- Craft production increased because
population growth caused an increase in
demand for many consumer goods. The
guilds also had to compete with new systems
of production.
+ In rural areas, the domestic system of
production became more important. Peasants
made products in their own homes and sold
them to merchants. This allowed them to
earn extra income during times of reduced
agricultural activity (autumn and winter).

+ Royal manufacturers (also known as royal

factories) produced various luxury goods.
They were based in large workshops and their
workers used simple tools.

Economic reforms in Spain

The Spanish economy experienced growth
in the 18th century as a result of reforms
introduced by Felipe V, Fernando VI and
Carlos III. The sociedades econmicas de
amigos del pas also played an important
role, carrying out scientific, economic and
technical studies, and then publishing the
results.
Some of the most important reforms
were in:
- Agriculture canals were built to
facilitate irrigation (the Canal de Castilla)
and uninhabited areas were colonized (the
Sierra Morena).

- Craft production royal manufacturers

were established for silk, porcelain and
other luxury goods. Textile production in
Catalua was also protected from foreign
competition.
- Trade internal customs duties were
abolished. Cadiz lost its monopoly on
transatlantic trade, allowing free trade with
America.

8. 18th-century society
During the 18th century, the population of
Europe increased steadily. This was due to
improved nutrition and hygiene, a reduction
in the number of epidemics and scientific
advances.
All
these
factors
reduced
mortality.
In Spain, this period saw the beginning of
a demographic trend that continues today.
Higher population density in the periphery of
the Iberian Peninsula and lower population
density in the interior with the exception of
Madrid.
European society continued to be based
on the estates system, but Enlightenment
thinkers wanted to introduce reforms.

- The nobility and the clergy were opposed to

any changes that would reduce their
dominance. Enlightenment despots criticized
the economic power of these groups and
introduced measures to limit it, particularly in
the case of the clergy. They confiscated some
church property and reduced the number of
convents.
- The wealthy bourgeoisie was inspired by
Enlightenment ideas, such as the value of
work and individual effort. They complained
about the privileges enjoyed by the nobility
and clergy.
Peasants living conditions did not
improve, in spite of agricultural reforms.
Some peasants had to supplement their
income by working in the domestic system.

Social reforms in Spain

The Bourbon kings implemented social
reforms, such as the law passed by Carlos III
that eliminated the legal dishonor of labour.
This meant that the nobility could now work
for a living.
People did not always accept reforms
because they wanted t protect their
traditions. In some cases, there were popular
protests, such as the Esquilache Riots.
Esquilache was one of Carlos IIIs miniters.
He wanted to prohibit traditional long capes
and wide-brimmed hats. In the end Carlos III
had to accept the rioters demands.

The Bourbons also adopted measures

relating to other social groups. In 1767 the
Jesuits were expelled from Spain to eliminate
their influence over education. Other
measures aimed to control marginalized
social groups, such as the Roma and the
homeless.

9. Science and art in the 18th century

9.1. Scientific advances
Two factors brought about great scientific
and cultural advances during the 18th century.
- The influence of the Enlightenment on
education and technological progress. Many
centres of study were created, which allowed
knowledge to be spread to a greater number
of people.
- The scientific legacy of the 17th century. It
would be impossible to understand the
progress of the 18th century without
considering the contribution of the 17th
century. The application of the scientific
method to all fields of knowledge, such as
chemistry and medicine, was fundamental.

The result was great scientific and

technological developments which led to
significant
improvements
in
peoples
wellbeing.
- Physics and geology
+ In 1714 Gabriel Fahrenheit improved the
mercury
thermometer
by
adding
a
temperature scale in degrees. In 1742 Anders
Celsius invented the 100-degree temperature
scale.
+ In 1750 Benjamin Franklin invented the
lightning rod. This attracted lightning and
conducted it to Earth.

+ In 1788 James Hutton established

geology as a science, based on the constant
changes he observed in the formation of the
Earth.
- Medicine
+ In 1733 Stephen Hales measured blood
pressure in animals.
+ In 1747 it was discovered that eating
lemons prevented scurvy. Scurvy was a
disease that sailors suffered from due to a
lack of vitamin C. this meant that longer
voyages could be made.
+ In 1796 Edward Jenner discovered a
vaccine for smallpox by obtaining liquid from
a wound of a person suffering from the
disease.