ELEM EN TS O F R H ETO R IC

Aristotle
342-322 B.C.E.
Definition of Rhetoric
the faculty of observing in any given
case the available means of persuasion.
A thoughtful, reflective activity leading to
effective communication, including
rational exchange of opposing viewpoints
and resulting in the successful resolution
of conflicts without confrontation,
persuading readers or listeners to support
their position, or to move others to action.

Aristotelian Triangle
Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability

to persuade is based on how well the

speaker appeals to his or her audience
in three different areas: ethos (ethical
appeals), pathos (emotional appeals),
and logos (logical appeals). These
areas form something that later
rhetoricians have called the Rhetorical
Triangle.

RhetoricalTriangle

Audience
Subject

Speaker

RhetoricalAristotelian Triangle
Ethos (Speaker)

Logos (Audience)

Pathos (Subject)

Ethos (G ut)
Argum ent by Character
Ethos" refers to the writer's "ethical appeal," that is, how well the

writer presents herself. Does she seem knowledgeable and

reasonable? Does she seem trustworthy? Does she treat her
opponents, people who might disagree, with fairness and respect, or
does she take cheap shots at them? Does she try to establish
common ground with the reader? Why do you think essays that lack
this kind of appeal are likely to be unconvincing? What effect do you
think it would have if a writer included nothing but ethical appeals?
Appeals to ethos often emphasize shared values between the speaker
and the audience.
A tone of reason and goodwill or from the type of thoroughness of
information
The speakers ethosexpertise and knowledge, experience, training,
sincerity, or a combination of thesegives the audience reason for
listening
Employs the persuaders personality, reputation, and ability to look
trustworthy
To Aristotle, the most important appeal

Pathos (H eart)
Argum entby Em otion

Pathos" refers to the argument's "emotional appeals," that is,

how well the writer taps into the reader's emotions Many times,
this appeal is how a writer will make an argument "matter" to
readers. Advertisements do it all the time. Perhaps a writer will
offer an anecdote to illustrate suffering or appeal to readers as
parents concerned for their children. Does the writer appeal to
your emotionsfeelings of sadness, pride, fear, youth, anger,
patriotism, love, justice? On the other hand, is the essay loaded
with facts, figures, and nothing else? Is the emotional appeal
effective or overwhelming?

Makes use of strong connotative diction

Usually include vivid, concrete description, and figurative

language

Although an argument that appeals only to the emotions is by

definition weakit is generally propagandistic in purpose and
more polemical than persuasive.

A successful persuader must learn how to read the audiences

Logos (em bodied thought)

Argum ent by Logic
Brain
"Logos" corresponds with the argument's "logical appeals," that is, how well the reader

uses the "text" of his own argument and evidence. Effective arguments will probably
include facts and other supporting details to back up the author's claims. They may
contain testimony from authorities and will demonstrate the writer's carefulness in
choosing and considering evidence. They are likely to be well organized, skillfully written,
and well edited/proofread. Questions to consider: What is being argued here, or what is the
author's thesis? What points does he offer to support this idea? Has he presented
arguments that seem logical, or does he seem to be jumping to conclusions? Can you think
of kinds of writing that rely exclusively on logical appeals? Do they bore you?
Offers clear, rational thought
Acknowledges counterarguments antithesis, meaning opposing idea--, anticipating
objections and opposing viewprolepsis, meaning anticipation
Concedes when logically appropriate and refutes the validity of all or part of the
counterargumentsyncrisis, meaning alternative judgmentnot only do we have this,
but we also--dirimens copulatio, meaning a joining that interrupts,
layering your points
Concession and refutation strengthens argument. Why?
Logos uses what the audience itself is thinking.

 How the Rhetorical Triangle Works:

Note that this triangle is essentially equilateral. Why? Again,

the equal sides and angles illustrate the concept that each
appeal is as important as the others. It also suggests that a
BALANCE of the three is important. Too much of one is likely to
produce an argument that readers will either find unconvincing
or that will cause them to stop reading.
Finally, note how each of the areas potentially affects the
others. An illogical argument may move us emotionally, but
only in the sense that it makes us angry at the author for
wasting our time. An overwhelming emotional argument may
make us feel that the author is relying exclusively on emotions
rather than offering solid reasoning. Finally, if an argument
contains only facts and figures and no emotional appeals, we
may simply get bored. All these defects may, in turn, affect
the author's ethical appeal: how can we trust a writer who
appeals only to our emotions? What common ground do we
have with a writer who doesn't appeal to our emotions at all?

M isc.about Rhetoric
The most productive arguments use the future tense, the language of choices

and decisions. The point is how are we going to keep this from happening
again?
A productive argument makes the audience feel triumphant and, therefore,
benevolent, resulting in achieving agreement.
The height of persuasiongetting others to do your bidding. Even if the
opponent scores points, you get him to accept your choice or do what you want.
(rhetorical jujitsu)
One way to get others to agree with you is to agree with themtactically, that
is. Use your opponents points to get what you want, throwing him off balance.
Rhetoric is the art of influence, friendship, eloquence, of ready wit, and
irrefutable logic; and it harnesses the most powerful of social forces, argument.
Mastering rhetorical tools (tricks) make an audience eager to listen.
The most effective rhetoric disguises its art.
Effective rhetoric jolts the audience into a fresh new perspective on the human
condition.
Persuasion can make the lesser side appear the greater. Aristophanes

M ore M isc.about Rhetoric

Emotion trumps logic. Aristotle
Cicero: Stimulate your audiences emotions.

Change its opinions.

Get it to act.
Three Core IssuesAristotle
Blame: Who moved my cheese?
Value: Should abortion be legal?
Choice: Should we build a plant in
Oaxaca?
Blame=Past (deals with issues of justiceforensic rhetoric, the argument
of the courtroom)
Values=Present
Choice=Future (best)
If an argument spins out of control, switch the tense.

Present-tense (demonstrative) rhetoric tends to finish with people bonding or separating.

Past-tense (forensic) rhetoric threatens punishment.
Future-tense (deliberative) rhetoric promises a payoff.

Key Term s in Rhetorical

Analysis
Exigencea gap, a need, a lack, something that needs

doing (whats sticking in the authors craw)

Audiencea reader or group of readers capable of acting on
this exigence. Important distinctions: Primary and
secondary audiences, immediate and mediated audiences
Purposewhat the author intends for the reader(s) to do
while and after they read the text
Appealsclosely related ways the author aims to get the
readers to take of the purposeful action: Ethos, Pathos,
Logos
Figures of Speechschemes and tropes and their function
Imagery, syntax, diction and their functions

David A. Jolliffe

 Audi partem alteram. --St. Augustine

Hear the other side.

Ar
i
st
ot
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e
s
Tool
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of
Per
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Argument by character
Argument by logic
Argument by emotion

Persuasive use of decorum, argument jujitsu, and tactical

sympathy. Cicero listed decorum first among ethical tactics.

An agreeable ethos matches the audiences expectations through
tone, appearance, and manners. This kind of character-based
agreeability : decorumthe art of fitting in, requires the
speaker/writer sound like the collective voice of the audience, a
walking, talking consensus.
You persuade a man only insofar as you can talk his language by

speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, idea, identifying

your ways with his.Kenneth Burke, modern rhetorician
Decorum can make the difference between persuading an
audience and getting thrown out by it.
You cannot be indecorous and persuasive at the same time; the
two are mutually exclusive

 Hypophora- asks a rhetorical

question and then immediately

answers it, allowing you to anticipate
the audiences skepticism and nip it
in the bud. It is better to address the
oppositions objections before they
do, which makes your audience more
malleable.

 adapted from materials by Dr. Joseph Sigalas

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And
Shea, Renee et al. The Language of Composition: Reading,

Writing, Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2008.

Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You For Arguing: What Aristotle,

Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us about the

Art

of Persuasion. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007.

 Forms of Argument
Induction: Argument by induction builds from evidence and

observation to a final conclusion. Most people recognize induction as

the basis for scientific method. Simple induction moves from "reasons"
and examples to conclusion and does not require scientific observation
or eyewitness reports.
Deduction: Argument by deduction builds from accepted truths to
specific conclusions. The syllogism and enthymeme are examples of
deductive arguments. We may also structure deductive arguments
based on cultural or social truths leading to specific conclusions.
Narrative: Stories and anecdotes should not be considered innocent
moments of entertainment in political communication. Narrative argues
partly by denying its ability to persuade. Remember the powerful use
Ronald Reagan made of anecdotes. He perfected the form for the
modern presidency, and every president since has followed his lead.
From Rhetorica