CHE 413

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA III

COURSE OUTLINE
Mass transfer: Fick's law, diffusion in stationary
media, additivity of resistances, diffusion of vapours.
Convection: Principles of free and forced convection.
Determinations of film transfer coefficients.
Heat exchanger design.
General diffusion and convection equations

 Navier-Stokes equation, problems formation

and solution.
Radiation: Mechanism of radiative heat
transfer, shape factors, heat exchange
between radiating surface, radiating
networks.
Boiling and Condensation: Different phase
of boiling, heat transfer coefficient,
condensation number, and boiler design.

TEXTS
Heat Transfer by Alan J, Chapman, Published by Macmillan
Publishing co.
Transport Phenomena by W.J. Beek, K.M.K. Muttzall and J.W.
van Heuven. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Heat & Mass Transfer by D.S. Kumar published by S.K. Kataria
& Sons, New Delhi.
Introduction to Heat Transfer by Vedat S. Arpaci, Ahmet
Selamet and Shu-Hsin Kao. Published by Prentice Hall.
Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles by
Christie John Geankoplis. Published by Prentice-Hall of India.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL LAWS
What conserved quantities are often
transported in industrial process plants?
It is known that the quantity: mass, energy
and momentum; can neither be created nor
destroyed.
The arising conservation laws, can therefore
be used, to account for the conserved
quantities, in a given process.

WHEN WILL A PROCESS OCCUR

It is necessary to know if a process will occur
before an account of the quantities involved in the
process can be given.
It may also be necessary to know the process
direction.
The 2nd law of thermodynamics helps to give the
condition and direction for a natural spontaneous
process to take place.

2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

One expression of the law states that every natural
thermodynamic process proceeds in the sense in
which the sum of the entropies of all bodies taking
part in the process is increased.
Entropy is a measure of disorder or randomness of
a system.
The law implies that for a natural process to occur,
there must be room to increase the entropy of the
system.

AT WHAT RATE WILL A PROCESS

OCCUR
In addition to knowing the condition for a
process to occur and accounting for the
conserved
quantities
involved,
for
a
comprehensive analysis, it is necessary to
determine the rate at which the process occurs.
For conserved quantities, transport laws govern
the rate of transfer.

 The conservation laws, thermodynamic laws and

transport laws are phenomenological laws.
These laws are based on observable phenomena
and logic and can not be derived from more
fundamental principles.
The laws give the basis of quantitative analysis
of physical and chemical processes.
They are therefore necessary tools used in the
design of a process plant.

GENERAL DIFFUSION AND

CONVECTION EQUATIONS
The conserved quantity, mass and momentum
transfer are phenomena that occur only in fluid.
Heat transfer takes place in both fluid and solids
as well as in vacuum (radiation).
Note that there are other conserved quantities
e.g., electric charge, not of primary concern to
us here.

 In fluids and solids, it is required that there

be a contact between the source and the
medium through which the transport
occurs.
In this case, the mediums particles, either
on a microscopic or macroscopic scale, are
involved in the transport.

The mechanism of transport of conserved

quantities in fluids and solids, where contact
is required, can generally be grouped into
two:
1. DIFFUSION
The transfer could be as a result
microscopic intermolecular interactions.

of

This transfer is generally referred to as

diffusion.

 This transfer occurs in a stationary medium

or in moving fluid where all fluid elements
move in a straight, smooth streamlines in
direction (x) normal to the transport
direction, i.e. laminar flow,
In

the laminar flow, the velocity is

sufficiently small and dominated by viscous
stabilizing forces.

 The

mechanism for the transport of R, is the

intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
or groups of molecules.

In fluid, molecular particles carry along the conserved

quantities with them as they move randomly,
Brownian motion, leading to the conserved quantitys
transport.
In solid, the transport is due to molecular vibration.
This mechanism of transfer is also called molecular or
microscopic transfer or sometimes, statistical transport.

2. CONVECTION
Another means of transport of a conserved
quantity, R, is by bulk motion of the mediums
particles, carrying R along.
This occurs in fluids in turbulent flow, on a
turbulent convective scale.
In convective transfer, the mechanism for
transport is the result of the motion of turbulent
eddies in the fluid that move in three directions
and carry R along.

 Convective transfer may be free (natural)

of forced convection. (Find out the
difference)
Molecular transport is usually much smaller
than convective transport, unless very low
flow velocities occur.
For this reason molecular transport in the
direction of flow can mostly be neglected.

GENERAL RATE EQUATION

The

rate at which any conserved quantity, R,

is transported, in a continuous medium, is
governed by a phenomenological law.

This law may be expressed in the general

form as:
= x (1)

The general rate law applies to transport on

both microscopic molecular scale (diffusion)
and
macroscopic
turbulent
scale
(convective).
The rate of transport of R per unit area
normal to the direction of transport is called
the flux of R.

MOLECULAR (DIFFUSION)
TRANSPORT MODELS
For microscopic molecular transport, i.e.,
diffusion, the driving force for the transport is
the negative of the gradient (with respect to
the direction of transport) of the concentration
of R.
Thus, the general rate equation for molecular
diffusion transport may be given as Equation 2.

 For

one dimensional gradient, in y direction,

the

diffusion

rate

equation

can

be

expressed in the form:

(2)

Where KT is the transport coefficient for the

quantity R.
For microscopic (molecular) transport, KT is
a property only of the medium (i.e. the

 The negative sign implies R, flows from a region of

high concentration to a region of low concentration.
Equation (2) may be applied to each of the
conserved quantities, mass, thermal (heat) energy
and momentum.
The corresponding expressions obtained are
referred to as Ficks law of diffusion, Fourier law of
heat conduction and Newtons law of viscosity
respectively.

 FOURIER S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION

If the flux of heat in the y direction is denoted by

qy, then the transport law can be written as:

(3)
Where T
coefficient,

is

called

the

thermal

m = mass and
(cvT) is the concentration of heat.

diffusion

 Because

the density () and heat capacity

(Cv) are assumed to be independent of
position, this equation can be written in
simpler form:
(4)
Where K = is the thermal conductivity of
the medium.
This law is known as Fouriers law of heat
conduction.

 FICKS

LAW

If the mass flux of A in the y direction is

denoted by nA,y, then the transport law is given
by:
(5)
Where DAB is the diffusivity of the species A in
the medium B.
Equation (5) is known as Ficks law of diffusion.
is the mass concentration, known as density.

 Sometimes,

when working with gases, mole

instead of mass is used.

Where mass is specifically referred

Equation (5) may also be written as:

(6)

Where is the mass flux and is density.

to,

If mole is required, Equation (5) may be

written in terms of molar flux, , where the
concentration, , is molar concentration as
given by Equation (7):

(7)

Thus the driving force for molecular mass

transfer is the mass or mole concentration
difference (gradient).

 NEWTONS

LAW OF VISCOSITY

Since x-momentum at any point where the

local velocity is
is , the concentration of
momentum must be .
If we denote the flux of x-momentum in the y
direction by , the transport equation is given
by:
(8)
where is called the kinematic viscosity.

 Because

the density is assumed to be

independentof position, Equation (8) can also be

written as:
(9)
where is the viscosity (or sometimes called the
dynamic viscosity).
The momentum flux, is same as the shear stress
exerted in the x-direction on a fluid surface of
constant by the fluid in the region of lesser .

 It may be seen from Equation (9) that

velocity gradient is the driving force for
momentum transport.
Equation (9) applies for laminar flow in the
x direction and is known as Newtons law
of viscosity.
It applies directly to a class of (common)
fluids called Newtonian fluids.

TURBULENT MACROSCOPIC
(CONVECTIVE) TRANSPORT MODELS
At high fluid velocity, destabilizing inertial
forces overcome the viscous forces and the flow
becomes turbulent.
Under turbulent conditions, a three-dimensional
fluctuating flow field develops that results in a
high degree of mixing or convection due to
the bulk motion of the turbulent eddies.

 As

a result, the flow is highly mixed, except

for a region near solid boundaries that is
called the boundary layer .

The fluid velocity approaches zero at a

stationary boundary, and thus there is a
region in the immediate vicinity of the wall
that is laminar.
Consequently, the major resistance to
transport in turbulent (convective) flow is
within this boundary layer.

 The size of the boundary layer depends

upon the dynamic state of the flow field as
well as fluid properties.
In turbulent flows boundary layer is
typically quite small relative to the
dimensions of the total flow area.
Thus, the general transport models for the
turbulent convective transport of heat and
mass can be expressed as follows:

 Heat

flux:

Mass flux:

(10)
(11)

where is a turbulent or eddy thermal

conductivity,
is a turbulent or eddy
diffusivity, and
is the boundary layer
thickness.

 Since

, and depend on the dynamic state

of low as well as the fluid properties, they
are combined with into the terms , the
heat transfer coefficient, and , the mass
transfer coefficient, respectively.

and
are the convective (turbulent)
transport coefficients for heat and mass
respectively.

 For

convective (turbulent) momentum transport,

it is somewhat more complex because of the
tensor character of momentum flux.

Newtons second law provides a correspondence

between a force in the direction, , and the rate
of transport of -momentum.
For continuous steady flow in the direction at a
bulk velocity
in a conduit of cross-sectional
area , there is a transport of momentumin the
direction given by:

(12)
The corresponding flux of -momentum in
the direction is
This -momentum is also the driving force
for convective transport of -momentum in
the direction (toward the wall), i.e.,

 Therefore,

the convective flux of xmomentum from the fluid to the wall (or
the stress exerted by the fluid on the wall)
can be expressed as:

Momentum flux:

(13)

where is called the Fanning friction factor

(other definitions of the friction factor are
also used, which differ by a factor of 2 or 4
from the Fanning friction factor).

 Like
the
heat
and
mass
transfer
coefficients, the friction factor depends
upon dynamic flow conditions as well as
upon fluid properties.

ASSIGNMENT

1) A property is being transported through a fluid at

steady state through a constant cross- sectional area.

At a point 1 the concentration is
and at Point 2
distance of
away. The diffusivity, , depends on
concentration as follows:
(a) Derive the integrated equation for the flux in terms
of and Then calculate the flux.
(b) Calculate at and plot versus for the three points.

 2)

A property is being transported by

diffusion through a fluid at steady state. At a
given point 1 the concentration is
and at
point 2 at a distance The diffusivity and the
cross sectional area is constant.

a) Calculate the flux.

b) Derive the equation for
distance.

as a function of

c) Calculate at the midpoint of the path.

MICRO BALANCE
In some cases the concentration, temperature
and flow velocity distributions in a system can
be calculated by starting with the principle of
conservation.
This principle is then applied to every small
volume element of the system.
This leads to the microbalances and the
resulting equations are differential equations.

 The general conservation law (for a nonreacting system) is:

Rate of X into the system Rate of X
out of the system = Rate of
accumulation of X in the system
------------ (1)

where X is the conserved quantity, i.e.,

 The system is not the containing vessel

(e.g., a pipe, tank, or pump) but is the fluid
contained within the designated boundary.
The equation derived from mass balance is
called continuity equation and that
derived from momentum balance is called
the equation of motion, while that
derived from energy balance is called
equation of energy.

THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

IN AN ISOTHERMAL SYSTEM
The

continuity equation is a mathematical

statement of the law of conservation of mass

which states that the mass of a system is
constant.
The differential form of equation of continuity
is developed by writing a mass balance over
a volume element
fixed in space, (micro
balance), through which a fluid is flowing.

X
Figure 1: Fixed volume element through which a fluid is
flowing.

 The

conservation of mass through the

volume element implies:

= -

(2)

Writing this mathematically: First consider

the

two

shaded

faces,

perpendicular to the X-axis.

which

are

 The

rate of mass entering volume element

through the shaded face at

(3)

The rate of mass leaving volume element

through the shaded face at

(4)

Where is the velocity in direction.

Similar expressions may be written for mass
entering and leaving in the and directions.
Rate of mass accumulation (5)

 The

mass balance equation then becomes:

(6)
By dividing the entire equation (6) by and
the limit as

tends to zero, using the

definition of derivative, we get:

(7)

This is the equation of continuity which

describes the time rate of change of the
fluid density at a fixed point in space.

 This

equation can be written more concisely

by using vector notation as follows:

(8)

Here

is called the divergence of

sometimes written as: div .

The vector notation on the right side of Eq.

(8) comes from the fact that is a vector.

 Equation

(7) tells us how density changes

with time at a fixed point resulting from the
changes in the mass velocity .

Equation (7) may be converted to another

form by carrying out the partial
differentiation:

(9)

Rearranging Eq. (9) gives:

(10)

 This

may be written as:

(11)

Where is the substantial time derivative.

A very important special form of the
equation of continuity is that for a fluid
of constant density, i.e.

very important special form of the

equation of continuity is that for a fluid
of constant density, i.e.

Hence, Eq. (11) becomes:

(12)

At steady state,

CONTINUITY EQUATION IN
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
It

is often convenient to use cylindrical coordinate

to solve the equation of continuity if fluid is
flowing in a cylinder. The relations between
rectangular and cylindrical coordinates are:

(13)

 Using

the relations in Eq. (13) with Eq. (7) the

equation

of

continuity

in

cylindrical

coordinates may be given as:

(14)

For

steady

incompressible

flow,

where

density , is constant, the equation becomes:

QUESTION
An

incompressible fluid flows past one side of a

flat plate . At the leading edge of the plate the

flow is uniform at the free stream velocity There
is no velocity in the z direction. The y direction
is the perpendicular distance from the plate.
Analyze

this

continuity.

case

using

the

equation

of

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF
MOTION

Equation

of motion is the conservation of

momentum equation and may be written as:

(15)

 Note

that Eq. (15) arises from Newtons 2nd

law which states that the time rate of
change of momentum of a system is equal
to the summation of all forces acting on the
system and takes place in the direction of
the net force.

Eq. (15) may thus also imply that

 Force may act on the system by these means:

(1) Pressure force and
(2) Gravitational force.
Also, momentum transfer may occurs by these
mechanisms:
(1) molecular transport (diffusion), due to
velocity gradient, in laminar flow and
(2) convective transport due to bulk flow, in
turbulent flow.

 First,

considering only the

the flow.

component of

The and components can be described in

an analogous manner.
The rate at which the
component of
momentum enters the face at in the
direction by convection is .
The rate at which it leaves the face at is .

 The

component of momentum entering the

face at is .

The component of momentum leaving the

face at is .
Also, the component of momentum entering
the face at is and
The component leaving the face at is .

 Hence,

the net convective momentum flow

into the volume element is:

(16)

 The

rate at which the

component of
momentum enters the face at by molecular
transport is .

The rate at which it leaves the face at is.

The component of momentum entering the
face at is .
The component leaving the face at is .

 Writing

similar equation for the remaining

faces, the net component of momentum
transport by molecular transfer is:

(17)

 The

net fluid-pressure force acting on the

element in the direction is the difference
between the forces acting at and :
(18)

To obtain the gravitational force acting on a

unit mass in the direction, is multiplied by
the mass of the element to give:
(19)

 The

rate of accumulation of momentum in

the element is:
(20)

Substituting Eqs. (16)-(20) into (15), dividing

by and taking the limit as approach zero,
we obtain the component of the differential
equation of motion:

(21)

The and components of the differential

equation of motion are, respectively:

(22)

 And

(23)

We can use Eq. (7), the continuity equation

with Eq. (21) to obtain an equation of
motion for the component and also for the
and components, with Eq. (22) and (23)
respectively as follows:

(24)

(25)

(26)

EQUATION OF MOTION (CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE)

If

instead of a Cartesian volume element in

rectangular coordinates, a volume element is
considered the following micro momentum
balances are obtained:

In the direction

(27)

 In

the direction
(28)

In the direction

(29)

 These

micro momentum balances can also

be formulated in spherical coordinates.

The above momentum balances in terms of

shear stresses are valid for all fluids,
because the shear stress are independent
of the rheological behavior of the fluid.
In the special case of Newtonian liquids is
proportional to the velocity gradient.

 Thus,

for Newtonian fluid, for example,

Where density, , does not vary with direction

then

(30)

where
Thus,

(31)

Similar expressions
stresses.

apply

to

other

shear

NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
When

the density,
and viscosity,
are
constant, Eq. (24)- (29) can be simplified to
obtain equations of motion for Newtonian
fluids.

The resulting simplified equation are also

called Navier-Stokes Equations.

 The

EQUATION OF MOTION IN
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

following equations in cylindrical

coordinates are for Newtonian fluids for
constant and for the and components,
respectively:

 1)

EXAMPLE

The component of the velocity vector of a

flow field is . If the velocity satisfies the
continuity equation for steady incompressible
flow, determine the expression for .

SOLUTION:
For 2-dimensional incompressible flow, the
continuity equation is:

Substituting and integrating,

Where is the constant of integration
Assuming the boundary condition at and

On summing
and , we see that the
continuity is satisfied

1)

ASSIGNMENTS (CONTINUITY
EQUATION)

The velocity components for a twodimensional flow are: and . Check if the flow
field satisfies the condition for steady
incompressible flow.

2) Is it possible to represent a steady

incompressible flow with the velocity vector

3)

Determine the component of the velocity

vector for an incompressible flow if and for
at the origin of flow.

4) A steady incompressible flow over a plane is

described by the velocity components and .
Determine if .
5) Given that
and
satisfy the continuity
equation for incompressible flow, if , deduce
the expression for .

6)For

a steady flow, and Show that

7) A one dimensional flow was found to have a

non-uniform density as represented by: with
initial for What is the velocity of this flow as a
function of position and time.
Ans

Exercise

Derive the equation giving the velocity

distribution at steady state for laminar flow
of a constant-density fluid with constant
viscosity flowing between two flat and
parallel plates. The two plates will be
considered to be fixed and of infinite width,
with the flow driven by the pressure gradient
in the direction.

NAVIER STOKE ASSIGNMENTS

1)
A Newtonian fluid is confined between two parallel

and vertical plates. The surface on the left is

stationary and the other is moving up vertically in
the direction at a constant velocity . The thickness
of the fluid is in the direction Assuming that the
flow is laminar, solve for the velocity profile.
2) Derive the equation for steady-state viscous flow
in a horizontal tube of radius where the tube is
far from the tube inlet. The fluid is incompressible
and is a constant. The flow is driven in one

3)

Derive the equation for steady-state

laminar flow inside the annulus between two
concentric horizontal pipes. The radius of
the inner tube is and the outer tube . This
type of flow occurs often in concentric-pipe
heat exchangers.

RADIATION

In the transport of heat via conduction and

convection, the mechanisms of transport require the
motion of the particles of the intervening mediums,
either on a microscopic or macroscopic scale.
The physical contact of the intervening medium
between the heat source and receiver is therefore
necessary.
Thus, there exits thermal energy distribution from the
heat source through the intervening medium to the
heat sink.

 It has been observed however, that if bodies

are
physically
isolated
from
their
surroundings, such as in a vacuum, heat
transfer may as well occur.
In this case the mechanism of heat transport
does not require physical contact or
intervening medium.
This mechanism of heat transport is referred
to as THERMAL RADIATION.

 The energy released by a radiating surface is in

the form of successive and separate (discrete)
packets or quanta of energy called photons.
The photons are propagated through space as
rays; the movement of swarm of photons is
described as the electromagnetic waves.
The photons, as carriers of energy travel with
unchanged frequency in straight paths and with
speed equal to that of light.

 When the photons get to the receiving surface,

there occurs reconversion of wave motion into
thermal energy.
Electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of
vibrational and rotational movements of the
molecular, atomic or sub atomic particles
comprising the matter.
The emission occurs when the body is excited by
an oscillating electrical signal, electronic or
neutronic bombardment, chemical reaction etc.

 The

emission of thermal radiations is

associated
with
thermally
excited
conditions which depend upon the nature
of surface and its absolute temperature.

Electromagnetic radiations include Gamma

rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, thermal
radiation, infrared, microwave etc.

 The

distinction between one form of radiation

and another lies only in in its frequency and
wavelength which are related by:

Consequently, longer wavelength corresponds

to lower frequencies and vice versa.
A high temperature body will have a high
frequency
quantum
and
so
shorter
wavelengths.

 Each

photon can be thought of as a particle

having mass , energy and momentum

Where the Planks constant has a value

Thermal radiation is usually defined as that
portion of the radiant energy spectrum
between wavelength of
and
micron
(micrometer).

 Thermal

radiation includes the entire visible and

infrared and a part of the ultraviolet spectrum.

The sun with an effective surface temperature
of emits most of its radiation at the extreme
lower end of the spectrum
Most solids and liquids have a continuous
spectrum; they emit radiation of all the
wavelengths.

 Gases and vapours radiate energy only at

certain bands of wavelength and hence are
called the selective emitters.
The emission of thermal radiation depends
upon the nature, temperature and state of the
emitting surface.
With gases however, the dependence is also
upon the thickness of emitting layer and the
gas pressure

 Heat transfer by radiation is encountered in

boiler furnaces, billet reheating furnaces
and other types of heat exchangers.
The design and construction of engines,
gas turbines, nuclear reactors and solar
collectors is also significantly influenced by
the radiation heat transfer.

ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND

TRANSMISSIVITY

The

total radiant energy , impinging upon a

body would be partially or totally
absorbed by it , reflected from its surface
, or transmitted through it in accordance
with the characteristics of the body.

Thus,

 Dividing

throughout by

Where

The value of depends on the nature of the surface of

the body, its temperature and the wavelength of the
incident rays.

BLACK BODY RADIATION

Black surfaces are effective absorbers of radiation
in the wavelength that are encountered in heat
transfer.
Accordingly the name black body is assigned to a
perfect absorber of radiation.
The thermal radiation impinging upon a black body
are totally absorbed by it; the radiation are neither
reflected from the surface nor transmitted through
it.

 For

a black body and .

In actual practice there does not exit a

perfectly black body which will absorb all the
incident radiations.
The absorptivity of a surface depends upon the
direction of incident radiation, temperature of
the surface, composition and structure of the
irradiated (receiving) surface and the spectral
distribution of incident radiation.

GRAY BODY

When a surface absorbs a certain fixed

percentage of impinging radiations, the surface
is called the gray body.
The absorptivity of a gray body is necessarily
below unity, but it remains constant over the
entire range of temperature and wavelength of
incident radiation.
This condition of constant absorptivity is not
satisfied by the real materials and as such a

SPECULAR AND ABSOLUTELY WHITE

A
body that reflectsBODY
all the incident thermal
radiations is called a specular body (if the
reflection is regular) or an absolutely white
body (if the reflection is diffused).
For such bodies , and .
Regular (specular) reflection implies that the angle
between the reflected beam and the normal to the
surface equals the angle made by the incident
radiation with the same normal.

 Refection from highly polished and smooth

surfaces approaches specular characteristics.
In a diffused reflection, the incident beam is
reflected in all directions i.e., there is
directional independence of the reflected
beam.
Most of the engineering materials have rough
surfaces, and these rough surfaces give
diffused reflections.

A
body

TRANSPARENT OR
DIATHERMANEOUS
BODY
that allows all incident radiations

through
it
is
diathermanous.

called

to pass
transparent
or

For such bodies , and .

Atmospheric air is diathermanous; therefore it is not
heated by sunshine, but by long wave heat reflected
by soil and especially, water on the Earth surface.
Water, on the contrary, is not diathermanous, and is
heated by sunshine directly.

 Transmissivity varies with wavelength of

incident radiation. A material may be nontransparent for a certain wavelength band
and transparent for another.
A thin glass plate transmits most of the
thermal radiations from the sun, but absorbs
in equally great measure the thermal
radiations emitted from the low temperature
interior of a building.

 Most

of the solids and liquids encountered in

engineering are non- transparent (opaque,
athermanous) to thermal radiations.

Thus for opaque bodies, , and

.
This shows that good absorbers are bad
reflectors.

 Gases

have relatively high transmissivity

and reflect very little of radiation impinging
on the interface.

Hence,

for gases, reflectivity

neglected such that:

may

be

 Consider a large hollow sphere or cylinder

provided with only one small opening and
maintained at uniform temperature.
The inner surface is coated with lamp black
that absorbs about 95% of incident radiation.
A beam of thermal radiation entering the hole
strikes the inner surface.
The major portion of the radiation is absorbed
and only a small fraction is reflected.

 The

weak reflected rays again strikes the inner surface

and its partly absorbed and partly reflected again.

Likewise the reflected radiation is successively

absorbed and finally when it escapes out, it has only a
negligible amount of energy associated with it.
A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly
as a black body with absorptivity, because all the
radiant energy entering through it gets absorbed.
The smaller the opening, the better the approximation
to black body behavior.

Emissive Power, Radiosity, and

Irradiation
Emissive
Power:
Total emmisive power,
symbol , is the term used
emitted thermal radiation
per unit time, per unit
surface.

denoted by the
to denote the total
leaving a surface,
area of emitting

Emmisive power consist of only original

emission from a surface and does not include
any energy leaving a surface as a result of

 Emmisive power is found to be dependent upon

the temperature of the emitting surface, the
substance of which the surface is composed, and
the nature of the surface structure (i.e roughness,
etc.).
The emission may be directionally preferential,
i.e. directional dependence.
Emmission may also be concentrated in certain
wavelength bands, i.e. spectral dependence,
within the thermal radiation spectrum.

 Emissive

power is the radiant energy flux.

Thus,
Where
For surfaces with temperature-independent
physical properties, the emissive power is
proportional to the fourth power of the
surface temperature. Thus,

 The

basic rate equation for radiation transfer

is based on Stefan-Boltzman law which
states that the amount of radiant energy
emitted per unit time from unit area of black
surface is proportional to the power of its
absolute temperature.

Where is the radiation coefficient or the

Stefan- Boltzman constant.

 Normally

a body radiating heat is simultaneously

receiving heat from other bodies as radiation.

Consider that surface 1 at temperature is completely
enclosed by another black surface at temperature .
The net radiant heat flux is then given by:
Very often the emission of radiant energy from cooler
bodies can be neglected in comparison with
convection and conduction.

 Radiosity

Radiosity is the term used to indicate the total radiant

energy leaving a surface, per unit surface area.
The symbol is used to denote the radiosity.
This quantity differs from emissive power in that
radiosity includes reflected energy as well as the
original emission.
Total radiosity of a surface element consists of all the
radiation leaving a surface, regardless of any
directional dependence or spectral preference.

IRRADIATION
Irradiation, G, is the term used to denote the
total radiation incident upon a surface per
unit time, per unit area of irradiated surface.
The irradiation incident upon a surface is the
result of emission and reflection from other
surfaces.

KIRCHOFFS LAW
The

radiation of one wavelength is called

monochromatic
radiation,
while
the
dependence of radiation on wavelength is
termed spectral.
Consider
an
enclosure
filled
with
monochromatic
radiation,
and
a
monochromatic opaque body , placed into this
enclosure.

 If
the body is at thermodynamic equilibrium with the
enclosure, then the net heat transfer is zero.

This implies that at equilibrium, the radiant heat

emitted equals that absorbed.
If the enclosure is a black body then the radiant
heat emitted is and that absorbed is the radiosity
(total emitted radiant energy) from the enclosed
body.
The enclosed opaque body radiosity is the sum of
the radiation due to original emission, and the
radiation due to reflection, .

 Thus,

for
the
case
described,
the
monochromatic radiation, at equilibrium is :

is the irradiation incident on the enclosed

body from the black body and in this case
equals
Thus,
For the opaque body, ,

 in

the equation is constant irrespective of

any body 1, 2, 3 etc., placed inside the
enclosure.
If the body placed inside the enclosure is a
black body, then and .
Thus,
This relation is known as Kirchoffs law.

 Kirchoffs

law states that the ratio of the emissive

power to absorptivity is same for all bodies and is

equal to the emissive power of a black body at the
same temperature.
The relation implies that at a given temperature, a
black body has the maximum attainable emissive
power.
The ratio of the emissive power of a certain nonblack body to the emissive power of a black body ,

EMISSIVITY
The

ratio of the emissive power of a certain

non-black body to the emissive power of a
black body , both bodies being at the same
temperature, is called the emissivity, of
the body.

Thus,

 Comparing

emissivity expression with

Kirchoffs law implies that:

The equivalence of and suggest that a

perfect absorber is also a perfect radiator.

RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT

Consider

two flat black bodies, each with a

flat surface at absolute temperature, and

All heat leaving body 1 arrives at body 2

and all heat arriving at object 1 comes from
object 2.
Thus, the net radiant heat transfer from
body 1 to body 2

If the

object 1 sees other objects in addition to

object 2, then a shape factor, (sometimes called
view factor or configuration factor) must be
included in the equation.
=fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which
reaches surface 2
=fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which
reaches surface 2

 The

expression of

is particularly simple in the

important special case of a small object, 1, in a
much larger isothermal environment, 2:
for

Thus, where , then

For small temperature differences, expanding
both into a Taylor series about a characteristic
temperature and subtracting gives:

Thus,

The linearized form of the radiative heat flux is frequently

used because of its convenience, especially in problems
dealing with a combination of all three modes of heat
transfer.
Although it is not valid for large temperature differences.

QUESTIONS
1)

A black thermocouple measures the

temperature in a chamber with black walls.
If the air around the thermocouple is at 20 ,
the walls are at 100 , and the heat transfer
coefficient between the thermocouple and
the air is
what temperature will the
thermocouple read?

 2)

A satellite in space that radiates heat, is

required to dissipate 5,000 W at steady
state. Given that space is a vacuum at a
temperature of , determine the steady
temperature of the satellite. Assume that
the satellite behaves as a black body.

 3)

A non black thermocouple measures

the temperature in a chamber with non
black walls. If the air around the
thermocouple is at 20 , the walls are at 100
, and the heat transfer coefficient between
the thermocouple and the air is
what
temperature will the thermocouple read?
Assume that the walls are much larger than
the thermocouple.

 4)

What is the emissivity of a grey surface,

10 in area, which radiates 1000 kW at
1500 K? What would be the effect of
increasing the temperature to 1600 K?