BTB 23103

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
CHAPTER 1: Vector Algebra

 That fondness for science, that

affability and condescension which
God shows to the learned, that
promptitude with which he protects
and supports them in
the elucidation of obscurities and in
the removal of difficulties, has
encouraged me to compose a short
work on calculating by al-jabr and almuqabala, confining it to what is
easiest and most useful in arithmetic.
- A quotation by Al-Khwarizmi
[al-jabr means "restoring", referring to
the process of moving a subtracted
quantity to the other side of an
equation; al-muqabala is "comparing"
and refers to subtracting equal
quantities from both sides of an
equation.]

Father of Algebra

Introduction
Physical quantities can be divided into two main
groups, scalar quantities and vector quantities.
A scalar quantity is one that is defined
completely by a single number (magnitude) with
appropriate units, e.g. length, area, volume,
mass, time, etc.
A vector quantity is defined completely when we
know not only its magnitude, but also the
direction in which it operates, e.g. force,
velocity, acceleration.

Vector representation
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line:

Unit Vector

The magnitude of vector A is:

The unit vector along A is:

Addition of vectors

Ans: 50 N

Addition of vectors

Vector addition & multiplication

Let vector r1 has x, y, z components (3, 2, 1)
respectively.
Vector r2 has x, y, z components (2, 2, 3)
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant r1 + r2
Addition
Add corresponding components
r1 + r2 has components (3+2,2+2,1+3) = (5,4,4)
Magnitude
3D Pythagoras theorem
|r1+r2| = (x1+x2)2+(y1+y2)2+(z1+z2)2 = 52+42+42

= 7.55

Direction

r = r1 + r2 = ( 5 , 4 , 4 )

|r1 + r2|
7.55 7.55 7.55

= (0.6622, 0.5298, 0.5298)

Scalar or Dot product.

A . B = |A||B| cos

is the angle between vectors A and B.

The scalar product can be viewed as the product of A
with the projection of B onto A.
If A and B are perpendicular, A . B = 0

Vector or cross product of A with B

A x B = |A||B| sin
is the angle between vectors A and B
is a unit vector perpendicular A and B
The vector product can be viewed as the product
of A with the projection of B onto plane
perpendicular to A.
The direction of the vector product is that in which
a right-handed screw would move when turned
from direction of A to B.
If A and B are perpendicular, A . B = 0
B x A = - A x B
Vector products are conveniently expressed in the
form of a determinant.

Example

Exercise 2.1
Find the distance vector between
P1(1,2,3) and P2(-1,-3,3) in Cartesian
coordinates.

Solution

Exercise 2.2
Find the angle between A and B of
Example 2-1 using the cross product
between them.

Solution:

x
y
z
2
3
3
1 5 1

Exercise 2.3
Find the angle that vector B of Example 21 makes with the z-axis.

Solution:

Vector Analysis
A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction.
The axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ, form a righthanded set.
The symbols i, j, k denote unit vectors in the
directions OX, OY, OZ, respectively.

Vector Analysis
Vector is defined by its
components:
a along OX, b along OY,
c along OZ

OP

Let i = unit vector in OX direction.

j = unit vector in OY direction.
k = unit vector in OZ direction.
ThenOP ai bj ck
Also OL2 = a2 + b2 and OP2 = OL2 + c2
OP2 = a2 + b2 + c2
So, if r = ai + bj + ck, then r a b c
2

Vector Analysis
The direction cosines [l, m, n] are the cosines of the
angles between the vector r and the axes OX, OY, OZ,
respectively.
For any vector, r = axi + ayj + azk
l

ax
|r|

ay
|r|

az
n
|r|

And l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Scalar product (dot product).
AB = AB cos ( is the angle between A and B)
If A = axi + ayj + azk and B = bxi + byj + bzk , then
AB = axbx + ayby + azbz

Vector Analysis
Vector product (cross product)
AB = AB sin in a direction perpendicular to A
and B so that A,B, (AB) from a right-handed
set.
Therefore |AB| = AB sin
i
j k
Also
A B ax
bx

ay
by

az
bz

a y bz by a z , a x bz bx a z , a x bz bx a z

Vector Analysis
Angle between two vectors:
cos = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
Where l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n2 are the direction cosines
of vectors r1 and r2 respectively.
For perpendicular vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
For parallel vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 1

GRADIENT

 In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field that points in the
direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is
that rate of increase. In simple terms, the variation in space of any quantity can be
represented (e.g. graphically) by a slope. The gradient represents the steepness and
direction of that slope.

In the above two images, the scalar field is in black and

white, black representing higher values, and its
corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.

http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~kazad/resources/math/Gradient/Gradient.htm

Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

If a scalar function (x,y,z) is continuously
differentiable with respect to its variable x,y,z
throughout the region, then the gradient of , written
grad, is define as the vector:

grad i j k
x y z

Note that, while is a scalar function, grad is a

vector function.
For example, if depends upon the position of P and
is defined by:
= 2x2yz3,

Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

Then,
grad = 4xyz3i + 2x2z3j + 6x2yz2k
So,

grad i j k
z
x y

j k
z
x y
i

Where
is called a vector differential
operator and is denoted by the symbol

(pronounced del or sometimes nabla)

i j k
y
z
x

Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

Beware! cannot exist alone: it is an

operator and must operate on a stated scalar
function (x,y,z).
If F is a vector function, F has no meaning.
So we have:
=

grad i j k
z
x y

Grad of sums and products of scalars

(A B) j
(A B) k
(A B)
x

(A B) i

(AB) j
(AB) k
(AB)
x

(AB) i

B
A
A
A
B
B
i A
B
B
B
j A
k A
x
y
y
z
z
x

A A
A B B B

i
j
k
i
j
k

(A B) A B

B
B
B
A
A
A
A
iA
j A
k B
iB
j B
k
x
y
z
x
y
z

B B B
A A A
A
i j k B
i j k
x y z
x y z

(AB) A(B) B(A)

Remember that in these results A and B are
scalars.
The operator acting on a vector has no
meaning.

Exercise 2.7
Given V = x2y + xy2 + xz2
a) find the gradient of V, and
b) Evaluate it at (1,-1,3)

a) V = x2y + xy2 + xz2

2
2
2

V x y z x y xy xz
y
z
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
x x x y xy xz y y x y xy xz

2
2
z z x y xy xz

2
2
2

x 2 xy y z y x 2 xy z 2 xz

b)
V

1, 1, 3

2
2
2

x 2 xy y z y x 2 xy z 2 xz

x 21 1 1 3 y 1 21 1
z 21 3
x 2 1 9 y 1 2 z 6
x8 y z 6
2

Example 7.10, pg.571, Glyn James

Find grad for

f r 3 x 2 y z

at the point (1,2,3)

f
6 x,
x

f
4 y,
y

f
2z
z

Grad f f 6 xi 4 yj 2 zk
At the point (1, 2, 3)
Grad f f 6i 4 j 2k

DIVERGENCE

Div (divergence of a vector function)

The operator (notice the dot; it makes all the
difference) can be applied to a vector function A (x, y, z)
to give the divergence of A, written in short as div A.
If A = axi + ayj + azk

divA A i
j k a x i a y j a z k
y
z
x
Note :
i i j j k k 1

i j j k i k 0

A i j k a x i a y j a z k
y
z
x
a x a y a z

i i
i j
i k
x
x
x

a x a y a z

i j
j j
j k
y
y
y

a x a y a z

i k
jk
k k
z
z
z

a y
a y
a x
a z a x
a z
1 0 0
0 1 0
A
x
x
y
y
x
y

a y
a x
a z
0 0 1

z
z
z
a x a y a z

divA A

y
z
x
a x a y a z

divA A

y
z
x

Div (divergence of a vector function)

Note that: the grad operator acts on a

scalar and gives a vector.
The div operation acts on a vector and
gives a scalar.
If A = 0 at all points for x, y, and z, then
it is called a solenoid vector.

Exercise 2.9

Solution:

Exercise 2.12
Verify the divergence theorem by
calculating the volume integral of the
divergence of the field E of Exercise 2.11

Example 7.2, pg. 574, Glyn James

Find the divergence
of the vector

V 2 x y 2 ,3 z x 2 ,4 y z 2
At the point (1, 2, 3)

Solution
a x a y a z
V

x
y
z
a y
a x
a z
2,
0,
2 z
x
y
z

V 2 2 z
so that at the point (1, 2, 3)

V 4

CURL

Curl of a vector function

The Curl operator denoted by , acts on a vector and
gives another vectors as a result.
If A = axi + ayj + azk , then curl A = A

CurlA A i j k a x i a y j a z k
z
x y
i

x
ax

y
ay

z
az

a z a y
a y a x
a x a z
j

y
z x
y z
x

A i

Curl A is thus a vector function.

It is best remembered in its determinant form.

 Note that the base vectors I, j, k of the Cartesian

coordinate system obey the following right-hand
cyclic relations:

x y z,

y z x , z x y

Note the cyclic order (xyzxyz, ). Also,

x x y y z z 0

Example 7.13, pg. 577, Glyn James

Find the curl of a

vector
V 2 x y 2 ,3 z x 2 ,4 y z 2
at the point (1, 2, 3)

vx 2 x y 2 , v y 3z x 2 , vz 4 y z 2
i

V
x
2x y2

y
3z x 2

z
4y z2

2
2

i
4 y z 3z x
z
y

2
2

3z x 2 x y
y
x

i 4 3 j 0 0 k 2 x 2 y
i 2 x y k
Thus, at the point (1, 2, 3),

V 1,0,6.

j 4 y z 2 2 x y 2
x

Summary of grad, div, and Curl

Grad operator acts on a scalar field to give a
vector field.
Div operator acts on a vector field to give a
scalar field.
Curl operator acts on a vector field to give a
vector field.

Coordinate System
1. Cartesian
2. Cylindrical
3. Spherical

Cartesian Coordinate System

Cartesian Coordinate System

Cartesian Coordinate System

Differential length, area, and volume in Cartesian coordinates

Cylindrical Coordinate System

Had to be converted into
radians before integrating the
integration limits

Cylindrical Coordinate System

Point P (r1, 1, z1) in cylindrical coordinates;
r1 is the radial distance from the origin in the x-y plane,
1 is the azimuth angle measured from positive x axis,
and
z1 is the vertical distance from the x-y plane.
Their range:
0 r , 0 2 , z

Cylindrical Coordinate System

Cylindrical Coordinate System

The base vector for cylindrical coordinate

r z, z r, z r
And like all unit vectors

r r z z 1
r r z z 0

Example 2.4: Cylindrical Area

Find the area of a
cylindrical surface
described by r = 5,
30o 60o, and
0 z 3.

Solution 2.4:
For a surface element with constant r gives

S r

60 o

30

d dz
z 0

5 6 z 0
5

2
Note: had to be converted to radians before evaluating the integration
limits

Exercise 2.4:
A circular cylinder of radius r = 5 cm is
concentric with the z-axis and extend
between z = -3 cm, and z = 3 cm. Find the
cylinders volume.

Solution 2.4:

Spherical Coordinate System

Point P(R1, 1, 1) in spherical coordinates

Spherical Coordinate System

Spherical Coordinate System

R is the range coordinate, describes a sphere
of radius R centered at the origin.
is the zenith angle, measured from the
positive z-axis; and describes a conical surface
with its apex at the origin.
is the azimuth angle measured from positive
x axis.
The ranges of R, and :

0 R , 0 , 0 2

The base vector of the spherical coordinate

system obeys the following right-hand cyclic
relations:

R , R , R

Interrelationships between Cartesian coordinates

(x, y, z) and cylindrical coordinates (r, , z).

Interrelationships between (x,y,z) and (R, , ).

Example 2.5: Surface Area in Spherical

Coordinates
The spherical strip
shown in the figure is
a section of a sphere
of radius 3cm. Find
the area of the strip.

Solution 2.5:
The area of an elemental spherical area with
constant radius R gives

SR

60 o

30

sin d

9 cos 30o 0
60 o

d
cm

18 cos 30 cos 60
o

20.7 cm .
2

Example 2.6: Charge in a Sphere

A sphere of radius 2 cm contains a
volume charge density v given by v =
4cos2 C/m2. Find the total charge Q
contained in the sphere.

Solution 2.6:

210 2

0 0 R 0

R3

4 cos R
2

sin dRdd

210 2

sin cos 2 dd
0

2
32
cos
6
d
10
0
3
3 0

2
64
6
10 d
0
9
128

10 6 44.68 C
9
3

Note: The limits on R were converted to meters prior to evaluating the

integral on R.

Doubt sees obstacles,

Faith sees the way,
Doubt sees the darkest night, but
Faith sees the day,
Doubt question, Who believe??
Faith answers I!!.

So let us say, I believe that I can do

it!!!

Reference
Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Electromagnetics for
Engineers, Pearson, Prentice Hall.
Glyn James, Advanced Modern
Engineering Mathematics 2nd Edition,
Prentice Hall.