Materials for

Automotive
Industry

BASIC of MATERIALS
SCIENCE
The Structure of
Materials

Course Contents
By type of Materials
Metals
Polymers (Plastics,
Rubber, foams)
Ceramics (glass)
Composites
Semiconductors
Protective Coatings
Functional Materials
(Sensors)

By Automotive
System
Body (chasis)
Engine
Exhaust System
(catalysis)
Trim
Suspension
Brakes
Tires
Hybrid Systems
Sensors
Coatings (paint)

Course Contents
By PropertyPerformance
Category
Tribological resistance
Mechanical Strength
Light weight
Environmental
friendliness
Wear
High Temperature
Resistance

Design by
Experimentation
Fatigue (suspension)
Wear (tires)
Friction (piston rings)
Material resistance
Scratch tests
XRD, SEM
Special Topics
SOFC
Thermoelectrics
Coatings
Hybrid systems
Hydrogen usage
Lithium-ion baterries

Introduction
What is materials science vs
materials
engineering?
Why should we know about it?
Materials drive our
society

Stone Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
Now?
Silicon Age?
Polymer Age?

Structur Processi , Propertie Performan

materials
& s,
e, materialsng
ce

Structure, Processing, &

Properties depend on structure
Properties
ex: hardness vs structure
of steel

(d)

60
0

Hardness
(BHN)

50
0
40
0

(a
)
30
m

30
0 0.01 0.1
1
20
0

(b)

30 m

(c
)

30 m

4
m

Data obtained from Figs.

10.30(a) and 10.32 with 4 wt
% C from
and
composition,
Fig. 11.14 and
associated discussion,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Micrographs adapted from
(a) Fig. 10.19; (b) Fig. 9.30;
(c) Fig. 10.33;
and (d) Fig. 10.21, Callister
& Rethwisch 8e.

10 100
Cooling
Rate
1000
(C/s)

Processing can change structure

ex: 10
structure vs cooling rate
0

Types of Materials

Metal
s
: Strong, ductile

High thermal & electrical conductivity

Opaque, reflective.

Polymers/plastics: Covalent bonding sharing of es

Soft, ductile, low strength, low density

Thermal & electrical insulators
Optically translucent or transparent.

Ceramics: ionic bonding (refractory) compounds of

metallic & nonmetallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)

Brittle, glassy, elastic
Non-conducting (insulators)
7

The Materials Selection

Pick Application
Determine required
1 Process
Properties
.

2
.
3
.

Properties: mechanical, electrical,

thermal, magnetic, optical,
deteriorative. Identify candidate
Properti
es

Material(s)

Material: structure,
composition.

Material

Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and

overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor
deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.
8

ELECTRICAL

Electrical Resistivity of
Copper:

Adapted from Fig. 18.8,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
18.8 adapted from:
J.O. Linde, Ann Physik 5, 219
(1932); and
C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson,
Physics of Solids, 2nd edition,
McGraw-Hill Company, New
York, 1970.)

(10-8 Ohmm)

Resistivity,

3
2
1

-200
0

-100

T
(C)

Adding impurity atoms to Cu increases

resistivity.
Deforming Cu increases resistivity.
9

 Stress &
Saltwater...

DETERIORATIVE
10
-8

crack speed
(m/s)

-- causes
cracks!

slows
crack speed in salt
water!
as-

Heat treatment:

10
-10

Adapted from chapter-opening

photograph, Chapter 16, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
(from Marine Corrosion, Causes, and
Prevention, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1975.)

is
held
at
160C for 1
hr before
testing
Alloy 7178 tested
in saturated
aqueous NaCl
solution at 23C

increasing
load
4

-material:
m "Deformation
Adapted from Fig. 11.20(b), R.W. Hertzberg,
and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering Materials" (4th
7150-T651
Al
ed.), p. 505, John Wiley and Sons, 1996. (Original
"alloy"
source: Markus O. Speidel, Brown Boveri Co.)

(Zn,Cu,Mg,Zr)

Adapted from Fig. 11.26,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Provided courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane Company.)

1
0

Course
Goals:

SUMMARY

Use the right material for the job.

Understand the relation between
properties, structure, and
processing.
Recognize new design
opportunities offered by materials
selection
Develop entrepreneurial projects.
1
1

 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Application of the tetrahedron of materials science and

engineering to sheet steels for automotive chassis. Note that
the microstructure-synthesis and processing-composition are
all interconnected and affect the performance-to-cost ratio
1
2

What is Materials
Science and
Engineering?
Materials Science and Engineering

Composition means the chemical make-up of a

material.
Structure means a description of the
arrangements of atoms or ions in a material.
Synthesis is the process by which materials
are made from naturally occurring or other
chemicals.
Processing means different ways for shaping
materials into
useful components or changing their
properties.
1
3

Figure 2.23 Atoms or

ions are separated
by an equilibrium
spacing that
corresponds to the
minimum interatomic energy for a
pair of atoms or ions
(or when zero force is
acting to repel or
attract the atoms or
ions)

2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

14

Cermic
os
Polimer
os
Metales

1
5

Figure 3.1 Levels of

atomic arrangements in
materials: (a) Inert
monoatomic gases have
no regular ordering of
atoms: (b,c) Some
materials, including
water vapor, nitrogen
gas, amorphous silicon
and silicate glass have
short-range order.
(d) Metals, alloys,
many ceramics and
some polymers have
regular ordering of
atoms/ions that
extends through the
material.
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Unit Cell and Crystals

During
Solidification

UNIT CELLS, and CRYSTALS

Solidification
Schematic illustration of the
stages during solidification
of molten metal; each small
square represents a unit cell.
(a) Nucleation of crystals at
random sites in the molten
metal; note that the
crystallographic orientation
of each site is different. (b)
and (c) Growth of crystals
as solidification continues.
(d) Solidified metal,
showing individual grains
and grain boundaries; note
the different angles at which
neighboring grains meet
each other. Source: W.
Rosenhain.

(a) Photograph of a silicon single

crystal. (b) Micrograph of a
polycrystalline stainless steel
showing grains and grain boundaries
(Courtesy Dr. M. Hua, Dr. I. Garcia,
and Dr. A.J. Deardo.)

Figure 3.11 The

fourteen types of
Bravais lattices
grouped in seven
crystal systems.
The actual unit cell
for a hexagonal
system is shown in
Figures 3.12 and
3.16.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Example
Determining the Relationship
between Atomic Radius and Lattice
Parameters
Determine the relationship
between the atomic radius
and the lattice
parameter in SC, BCC, and FCC
structures when one atom is located at each lattice
point.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

Figure 3.14 The

relationships
between the atomic
radius and the
Lattice parameter

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal

Structure

Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c)
single
crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol.
1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

Face-Centered Cubic Crystal

Structure

Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single
crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol.
1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal

Structure
Figure 1.4 The hexagonal
close-packed (hcp) crystal
structure: (a) unit cell; and (b)
single crystal with many unit
cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et
al., The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. 1,
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

Allotropic or Polymorphic
Transformations
Allotropy - The characteristic of an element being able to
exist in more
than one crystal structure, depending on temperature
and pressure.
Polymorphism - Compounds exhibiting more than one
type of crystal structure.
Both are similar terms, allotropy is regularly used for pure
metals, whereas
polymorphism is a general term.

Case Study: Oxygen gas sensors of Stabilized

Zirconia

Figure 3.17 Oxygen gas sensors used in cars

and other applications are based on stabilized
zirconia compositions. (Image courtesy of
Bosch Robert Bosch GmbH.)
The principle: The addition of for example, yttria, to pure zirconia
replaces some of the Zr4+ ions in the zirconia lattice with Y3+ ions. This
produces oxygen vacancies, as three O2- ions replace four O2- ions. It
also permits yttrium stabilized zirconia to conduct O2- ions (and thus
conduct an electrical current), provided there is sufficient vacancy site
mobility, a property that increases with temperature. This ability to
conduct O2- ions makes yttria-stabilized zirconia well suited to use in

Yttria-stabilized zirconia
(YSZ)
Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is a zirconium-oxide based
ceramic, in which the particular crystal structure of zirconium oxide
is made stable at room temperature by an addition of yttrium oxide.
These oxides are commonly called "zirconia" (ZrO2) and "yttria" (Y2
O3), hence the name.

Example 3.5
Calculating Volume Changes in
Polymorphs of Zirconia
Calculate the percent volume change as zirconia
transforms from a tetragonal to monoclinic structure.[9]
The lattice constants for the monoclinic unit cells are: a =
5.156, b = 5.191, and c = 5.304 , respectively. The angle
for the monoclinic unit cell is 98.9. The lattice constants
for the tetragonal unit cell are a = 5.094 and c = 5.304 ,
respectively.[10] Does the zirconia expand or contract
during this transformation? What is the implication of this
transformation on the mechanical properties of zirconia
ceramics?

Example 3.5 SOLUTION

The volume of a tetragonal unit cell is given by
V = a2c = (5.094)2 (5.304) = 134.33 3.
The volume of a monoclinic unit cell is given by
V = abc sin = (5.156) (5.191) (5.304) sin(98.9) = 140.25 3.
Thus, there is an expansion of the unit cell as ZrO2 transforms
from a tetragonal to monoclinic form.
The percent change in volume
= (final volume initial volume)/(initial volume) 100
= (140.25 - 134.33 3)/140.25 3 * 100 = 4.21%.
Most ceramics are very brittle and cannot withstand more
than a 0.1% change in volume. The conclusion here is that ZrO2
ceramics cannot be used in their monoclinic form since, when
zirconia does transform to the tetragonal form, it will most likely
fracture. Therefore, ZrO2 is often stabilized in a cubic form using
different additives such as CaO, MgO, and Y2O3.

Point Defects

Point defects - Imperfections, such as vacancies, that are

located
typically at one (in some cases a few) sites in the crystal.
Extended defects - Defects that involve several
atoms/ions and thus occur over a finite volume of the
crystalline material (e.g., dislocations, stacking faults,
etc.).
Vacancy - An atom or an ion missing from its regular
crystallographic site.
Interstitial defect - A point defect produced when an atom
is placed into the crystal at a site that is normally not a
lattice point.
Substitutional defect - A point defect produced when an
atom is removed from a regular lattice point and replaced
with a different atom, usually of a different size.
3
0

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure : Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) interstitial atom, (c) small
substitutional atom, (d) large substitutional atom, (e) Frenkel
defect, (f) Schottky defect. All of these defects disrupt the perfect
arrangement of the surrounding atoms.
3
1

Defects in a Single-Crystal
Lattice

Figure Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: self-interstitial,

vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.

Edge and
Screw
Dislocation
s

Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation. Source: (a)
After Guy and Hren, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, 1974. (b) L. Van Vlack, Materials for
Engineering, 4th ed., 1980.

Movement of an
Edge
Dislocation

Figure 1.10 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals in much lower than that predicted by
theory.

ACTUAL PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
(MIGHT BE A
CRITERIUM OF
FAILURE)

Slip and Twinning

Figure. Permanent deformation (also
called plastic deformation) of a single
crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a)
structure before deformation; and (b)
permanent deformation by slip. The size
of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude
of the shear stress required to cause
slip.

Figure .(a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile

load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the
direction of the pulling force. This behavior can be simulated using a
deck of cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in a
single crystal in tension.

Slip Lines and Slip Bands

Figure Schematic illustration of slip lines and
slip bands in a single crystal (grain) subjected
to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a
number of slip planes. The crystal at the center
of the upper illustration is an individual grain
surrounded by other grains.

Alloying Effects on
Dislocation
Movement

Effect of a
small
substitutional
atom

Effect of a
LARGE
substitutional
atom

Effect of
an
intersticial
atom

Solidification
Figure 1.11 Schematic
illustration of the stages
during solidification of
molten metal; each small
square represents a unit cell.
(a) Nucleation of crystals at
random sites in the molten
metal; note that the
crystallographic orientation
of each site is different. (b)
and (c) Growth of crystals
as solidification continues.
(d) Solidified metal,
showing individual grains
and grain boundaries; note
the different angles at which
neighboring grains meet
each other. Source: W.
Rosenhain.

Grain Sizes
TABLE 1.1
ASTM No.
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grains/mm 2
1
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1,024
2,048
4,096
8,200
16,400
32,800

Grains/mm 3
0.7
2
5.6
16
45
128
360
1,020
2,900
8,200
23,000
65,000
185,000
520,000
1,500,000
4,200,000

Grain Sizes

Grain Sizes

IMAGE ANALYSIS

EFFECT OF
GRAIN
BOUNDARIE
S

Figure (a) The atoms near the boundaries

of the three grains do not have an
equilibrium spacing or arrangement. (b)
Grains and grain boundaries in a stainless
steel sample. (Courtesy Dr. A. Deardo.)
4
3

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure . The effect of grain size on the yield

strength of steel at room temperature.

4
4

Design of a Mild Steel

The yield strength of mild steel with an average grain size of

0.05 mm is 20,000 psi. The yield stress of the same steel with
a grain size of 0.007 mm is 40,000 psi. What will be the
average grain size of the same steel with a yield stress of
30,000 psi? Assume the Hall-Petch equation is valid and that
changes in the observed yield stress are due to changes in
dislocation density.
Example SOLUTION
Thus, for a grain size of 0.05 mm the
yield stress is 20 6.895 MPa = 137.9
MPa.
(Note:1,000 psi = 6.895 MPa). Using the
Hall-Petch equation

4
5

Example 4.13 SOLUTION

(Continued)

For the grain size of 0.007 mm, the yield stress is 40

6.895 MPa = 275.8 MPa. Therefore, again using the HallPetch equation:

Solving these two equations K = 18.43 MPa-mm1/2, and

0 = 55.5 MPa.
Now we have the Hall-Petch equation as
y = 55.5 + 18.43 d-1/2
If we want a yield stress of 30,000 psi or 30 6.895 =
206.9 MPa, the
grain size will be 0.0148 mm.

4
6

Figure 4.18 Microstructure of

palladium (x 100). (From ASM
Handbook, Vol. 9,
Metallography and
Microstructure (1985), ASM
International, Materials Park,
OH 44073.)
4
7

Plastic deformation of
polycrystalline
metals

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under
license.

Figure During hot working, the elongated anisotropic

grains immediately recrystallize. If the hot-working
temperature is properly controlled, the final hot- worked
grain size can be very fine
4
8

Cold Working:
Increase in Strength due to:
* Entanglement of dislocations with grain
boundaries
*The more the grain boundaries, the higher
the strength,
therefore SMALLER GRAIN SIZE increases
strength

Preferred Orientation
Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of
idealized (equiaxed) grains in a
specimen subjected to compression
(such as occurs in the rolling or
forging of metals): (a) before
deformation; and (b) after
deformation. Note the alignment of
grain boundaries along a horizontal
direction; this effect is known as
preferred orientation. Producing
ANISOTROPY.

Anisotro
py In
Ductility
(b)

Figure (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to bulging (caused
by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet). Note the orientation of the crack with respect
to the rolling direction of the sheet; this sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack
(vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was
vertical. Source: J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.

Annealing: Recovery,
Recrystallization and Grain
Growth

Figure. Schematic illustration of the

effects of recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth on mechanical properties
and on the shape and size of grains.
Note the formation of small new grains
during recrystallization. Source: G.
Sachs.

*Recrystallization is a DIFFUSION
process