URINE ANALYSIS

General considerations
A. Purpose of kidney function tests
1. Determine the nature of an impairment of renal function
2. Urinalysis is usually the only test that provides diagnostic
assistance.
3. Determine the extent of an impairment of renal function
It is best to perform serial tests to determine the extent that an
abnormal kidney function is reversible or to follow the course
of chronic kidney impairment.
4. Renal function tests provide part of the evidence upon which a
prognosis should be based. Serial determinations, rather than
single tests, are more reliable for purposes of prognosis.

B. Determination of the nonprotein group of nitrogenous substances,

especially urea and creatinine, is important because significantly
increased values are usually the result of accumulation of these
substances in the blood because of defective kidney elimination.
1. Nitrogen - containing constituents of blood
ProteinsAlbumin
Globulin
2. Non protein nitrogenous substances
Metabolic waste products
Urea
Creatinine
Uric acid
Amino acids
Ammonia

Kidney function tests commonly used for clinical purposes

A. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) or nonprotein nitrogen (NPN)
B. Creatinine
C. Concentration tests
D. Phenolsulfonphthalein (PSP)
E. Urinalysis
Specific gravity
pH
Protein
Microscopic examination of sediment

General considerations

There are relatively simple procedures involved in urinalysis,

conducted in a few minutes of time, can yield much valuable
information in regard to the function of the urinary system as well as
other
organs
or
systems
of
the body.
A complete urinalysis should be a routine procedure for the
following:
Surgical and geriatric patients
Disease problems as yet without a diagnosis, since abnormal urine
findings could indicate the need for additional evaluation of a
particular organ or body system
Kidney disease abnormal specific gravity, proteinuria, casts,
leukocytes, erythrocyte.
End-stage renal disease low specific gravity with failure to
concentrate urine.

Bladder infectionproteinuria, leukocytes, bacteria

Neoplasia exfoliated neoplastic cells, hematuria
Liver disease bilirubinuria, altered urobilinogen,
bilirubin crystals
Hemolysis hemoglobinuria, increased urobilinogen
Diabetes
mellitus glycosuria and ketonuria
Diabetes insipiduslow specific gravity with failure to
concentrate urine when water is withheld
Acidosislow pH
Alkalosis increased pH

Collection
Cantainers
Collection container must be clean.
Glass vials or disposable plastic containers ie Opaque
plastic or dark glass should be used if the specimen is
not to be examined soon after collection, as sunlight
will cause degradation of certain constituents such as
bilirubin and urobilinogen in less that an hour.
Catheterization into a sterile container is mandatory for
urine to be used for bacterial cultures and
sensitivity testing.

Timing of collection
An early morning sample from house-trained pets is
most likely to contain constituents of diagnostic
significance.
Fluid consumption during the day dilutes the urine (the
resulting lowered specific gravity will cause
disintegration of erythrocytes and leukocytes) and all
the substances.
Avoid catching the first part of the urine stream of
noncatheterized samples, as it will contain cellular
debris, leukocytes, and exudate flushed from the
urethra, prepuce, and genital tract.

Timing of analysis
A fresh sample is preferred.

Bacteria are normally found in the urethra, so

contamination with urea-splitting bacteria may result in
loss of usefulness of urine for diagnostic purposes if it
is allowed to stand several hours at room temperature.
Urea split to ammonia; alkalinizes urine
Formed elements (cells and casts) dissolve as urine
becomes more alkaline.
Urine preserved by refrigeration is suitable for
examination for 2 to 3 hr.

Allow sample to warm to room temperature,

Low temperature will slightly increase specific gravity.
Low temperature can interfere with tests using enzymes
for reactions.
Freezing damages cells

Preservatives

may be used when immediate analysis or refrigeration is impossible, but may

interfere with several chemical tests
Toluene
Antimicrobial
Add sufficient quantity to just cover the surface of the urine.
The portion to be examined should be pipetted from beneath the surface film
of toluene.
Does not interfere with chemical determination of protein or glucose, but
changes the amount of ketones
Useful to preserve a 24-hr urine specimen obtained in a metabolism cage
Thymol
Antimicrobial often combined with sodium fluoride to preserve glucose
Use a small crytstal of thymol or 5 to 10 ml of a 10% solution in isopropyl
alcolhol for a 24-hr collection of urine.

Formalin
Prevents bacterial growth
One drop of 40% formalin in 30 ml of urine will preserve casts or cellular
elements.
Interferes with glucose reaction
Chloroform
Antimicrobial
5 ml will be adequate to preserve a 24-hr urine collection.
Boric acid
Antimicrobial
1 g preserves a 24-hr urine sample.
Available in tablet form from many commercial laboratories and can be used
when hounone analysis of the specimen is requested
Metaphosphoric acid
1 volume of aqueous 10% concentration is added to 5 volumes of urine to
preserve vitamin C (ascorbic acid).

Physical examination of urine

A. Urine volume
1. The amount of urine produced per day by normal
animals is dependent upon several variables.
a. Diet
b.Fluid intake
c. Climate temperature and humidity
d.Exercise
e. Size and weight

Normal ranges
Species

Daily Amount (L)

Horse

2-11

Cattle

8.8-22.6

Sheep and Goat

0.5-2

Pig

2-6

Dog

0.5-2

Cat

0.5-1

Urine volume is usually inversely related to specific

gravity.
High volume and low specific gravity

Exceptions
Diabetes mellitus high volume and high specific
gravity due to glycosuria
Severe or terminal nephritis may be associated with
low volume and low specific gravity

Incresed volume Polyuria

Decresed voluume Oligouria
They may be Nonpathological
pathological

Colour
Interpretation
1.Yellow to amber normal
2.Colorless to pale yellow usually dilute urine with
low specific gravity and polyuria
End-stage renal disease
Excessive intake of water or solutions
Diabetes insipidus
Hyperadrenocorticism
Diabetes mellitus in some cases
Pyometra

3. Dark yellow to yellow-brown concentrated urine with a

high specific gravity and small quantity
Acute nephritis
Diminished intake of fluids
Dehydration prolonged vomiting or diarrhea
Fever
4. Yellow-brown or greenish yellowyellow-green foam when
urine is shaken
Urobijinoids chromagen derived from heme
Green biliverdin
Yellow brown bilirubin and urobilin

5. Red, wine, or brown

Cloudyhematuria.
Translucenthemoglobinuria
Normal horse urine is a yellow color when voided, but
it turns a deep brown color upon standing for a time
due to oxidation of pyrocatechin.
Myoglobin in azoturia i
Methemoglobinuria

6. Green
Methylene blue in urinary antiseptics; will decolorize with hydrochloric
acid
Bile-biliverdin
Acriflavine.

7. Red to pink
Phenothiazine usually excreted in colorless form but turns pink with
oxidation on exposure to air
Phenolsulfonphthalein dye in alkaline urine
Neoprontosil
Phenolphthalein
Cascara
Pyridium

Transparency

Record transparency, while observing in a test tube or urinometer

cyclinder, as:
Clear
Cloudy
Flocculent
Clear freshly voided urine from the normal animal is usually
clear,
except
in
the
horse
where
it
is
normally thick and cloudy due to calcium carbonate crystals and
mucus
Cloudy not necessarily pathological, as many samples may
become
cloudy
upon
standing;
cause
of
loss of transparency best determined by microscopic examination
of sediment

1.

2.

3.

Epithelial cells if present in large numbers

Blood red to brown color and smoky
Leukocytes may produce milky, ropy appearance if present in
large numbers
Bacteria produce a uniform turbidity if present in large numbers;
the turbidity does not settle out and cannot be removed by filtration
Mucus
Crystals
Calcium carbonate in fresh horse urine or bovine urine after it
stands
Amorphous urates white or pink cloud in acid urine upon
standing or when chilled
Amorphous phosphateswhite cloud in alkaline urine

Specific gravity

Method
a. Fill the urinometer cylinder about three-fourths full with
urine.
The container used for flotation of the urinometer should be
large enough in diameter to prevent adherence of the
urinometer to its sides.
Place the urinometer in the urine and rotate it to prevent its
touching
the
sides
or
the
bottom
of
the
cylinder.
Read the scale on the stem of the urinometer at the interface
of
the
air
and
urine,
and
record
it
in
decimals, e.g., 1.020.

Species

Range

Average

Horse

1.020-1.050

1.035

Cattle

1.025-1.045

1.035

Sheep and goat

1.015-1.045

1.030

Pig

1.010-1.030

1.015

Dog

1.015-1.045

1.025

Cat

1.020-1.040

1.030

Man

1.010-1.030

1.020

Chemical examination of urine

pH
Methods
a. Nitrazine paper (E. R. Squibb & Sons)
Dip the paper strip into urine several times.
Match the color of the paper strip with the chart 1 min
after wetting with urine.
b.Hydrion pH paper strips
Wet the paper with urine and compare with the color
chart within 30 sec.
pH section of multiple strips (e.g., Labstix)

Interpretation

Normal: Range varies in different species and individuals,

depending upon the diet and metabolism.
Urine tends to become less acid after meals (alkaline tide).
Horse-alkaline (pH 8)
Cattle-alkaline (pH 7.4 to 8.4)
Sheep alkaline
Pig acid or alkaline
Dog-acid (pH 6 to 7)
Cat-acid(pH6to7
Man--usually acid (pH 4.8 to 7.5)

Acidic urine
Normal in carnivorous animals
Nursing calves and foals
Diet with an excess of protein
Starvation catabolism of body proteins
Fever
Acidosis both metabolic and respiratory
Diabetes mellitus
Uremia any cause
Prolonged muscular activity
Administration of acid salts
Sodium acid phosphate
Ammonium chloride
Sodium chloride
Calcium chloride

Alkaline
Normal in herbivorous animals
Vegetable diet
Cereals have a high protein content and tend to produce an acia urine.
Cystitis depending upon the type of bacteria
Urine retention decomposition of urea to ammonia
Rapid absorption of transudates
Alkalosis both metabolic and respiratory
Alkaline therapy
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium and potassium citrate or acetate
Sodium lactate
Potassium nitrate
Urine becomes alkaline when kept at room temperature because of
ammonia formation as a result of decomposition of urea.

Proteins
Methods
a. Robert's test
Principle - Precipitation of protein by a strong acid
Procedure
(a) Place 2 ml of Robert's reagent in a test tube
(b) Layer 2 ml of clear urine on the reagent by inclining the tube
and allowing the urine to run slowly down the side from a long
dropper or pipette.
Cloudy urine should be cleared by either centrifugation or filtration
before being used.
(c) A positive test is indicated by a white ring at the zone of contact,
which
should
be
read
against
a dark background and reported as:

Negative

No ring at zone of contact

Trace

Barely perceptible ring

Distinct narrow ring

++

Wider, definite ring

+++

Very wide ring

++++

Thick, dense ring occupies most or all of

urine layer

B. Sulfosalicylic acid test

C. Albustix Reagent Strip or colorimetric strip test
D. Albutest Reagent Tablet or colorimetric tablet test

Interpretation
Always interpret proteinuria in conjunction with the specific gravity.
Normally no protein can be demonstrated in urine by the usual
methods.
A small amount of protein normally passes through the glomerular
capillaries, but most is reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubules.
The small amount of protein that normally passes into the urine is
composed primarily of globulins and is insufficient to give a positive
reaction with the usual tests.
Physiological or functional proteinuria transient and believed due
to a temporary increased glomerular permeability as a result of
capillary congestion
Excessive muscular exertion
Convulsions
Emotional stress
Ingestion of an excessive amount of protein

Pathologic proteinuria
Prerenal the protein originates from nonrenal
conditions and its loss in the urine is not due to
primary renal disease
Indicative of multiple myeloma
Detected by heating urine, as it precipitates at 50 to
60 C . Detection by urine electrophoresis is more
reliable.
Hemoglobinuria
Myoglobinuria

Renal
Causes
[1] Increased permeability of glomerulus
[2] Impaired reabsorption of protein normally present in
glomerular filtrate due to tubular disease
Markedheavy proteinuria without hematuria usually
originates in the kidneys and especially through the glomerulus
Marked hematuria from any cause renal neoplasm will
produce erythrocytes, leukocytes, and sometimes tumor cells
Acute nephritis
Glomerulonephritis
Nephrosis especially if due to chemical poisoning
Amyloidosis

Moderate
Pyelonephritis sometimes produces marked proteinuria, but if
chronic may be slight
Polycystic kidneys slight to moderate proteinuria
End-stage renal disease negative to moderate

Postrenal (false, accidental)

protein gains entrance to urine after it leaves the renal tubules by
contamination with exudates or blood
A marked hematuria of any cause produces moderate to marked
proteinuria; often seen with improper catheterization
Inflammatory exudate results in slight to moderate amount of
protein
Ureteritis , Cystitis , Urethritis , Urolithiasis

Glucose

Methods
Clinitest Reagent Tablet test
Clinistix Reagent Strip or colorimetric strip test for
glycosuria.
Benedicts test
Procedure : 5ml of benedicts solution in a test tube add
exactly 8 drops of urine and boil it for 1to2 min, allow to
cool slowly.
Presence of glucose will be indicated by red, yellow to
green, precipitate depending on quantity of glucose present.

Interpretation

Normal urine does not contain glucose, for although glucose passes through
the glomeruli be reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubules.
Glycosuria with hyperglycemia Glycosuria occurs in dogs when the blood
glucose levels exceed 180 mg/dl of blood.
Diabetes mellitus association of hyperglycemia and ketosis as a result of a
deficiency of insulin leading to faulty utilization and storage of carbohydrates
Acute pancreatic necrosis when associated with deficiency of insulin
Hyperadrenocorticism
Increased secretion or injection of epinephrine
Solutions administered that contain glucose or fructose
Excessive intake of carbohydrates in the diet
Intracranial pressure increased
Tumor
Hemorrhage
Encephalitis
Fractur

Glycosuria without hyperglycemia

Renal glycosuria not often seen because of progressive destruction of
nephrons
Due to impaired tubular reabsorption or lowering of renal threshold for glucose
Only small quantities of glucose seen
False-positive reaction for glucose when using reducing methods with a number
of drugs that have
been administered to the patient
Antibiotics streptomycin, aureomycin, terramycin, chloramphenicol, penicillin
Lactose, pentose, or other reducing sugars
Ascorbic acid
Morphine
Salicylates
Chloral hydrate
Phlorizin

Acetone (ketone)
Methods
Acetest Reagent Tablet test
Ketostix Reagent Strip or colorimetric strip test specific for
diacetic acid
Rotheras test
Procedure : saturate 3ml of urine with ammonium sulphate.
Add1drop of freshly prepared solution of sodium nitroprusside
and 2ml of conc ammonium hydroxide. Mix well and allow to
stand.
Characteristic permanganate colouration indicates the presence if
acetone in urine.

Interpretation
The ketone bodies include acetone, acetoacetic acid (diacetic
acid), and beta-hydroxybutyric acid.
Ketosis
Acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid, from which
acetone is derived, are normal intermediate products of fat
metabolism.
When greater amounts of fatty acids are utilized with the
production of more acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid
than can be oxidized by the tissues, these bodies accumulate in the
blood and are excreted in the urine.
Ketosis develops in any of the clinical states of deficient
carbohydrate metabolism because optimum carbohydrate
metabolism inhibits ketosis.

1. Ketosis (acetonemia) in pregnant or lactating cows and

pregnant ewes (pregnancy disease)
Associated with a hypoglycemia
A marked positive acetone test in bovine urine is abnormal, as the
urine of cattle usually contains a negligible quantity of ketone
bodies.
It is important to differentiate severe ketosis from mild ketosis
caused by an animal going off feed from other pathological
conditions.
2 . Diabetes mellitus associated with a hyperglycemia, as normal
carbohydrate utilization is lacking
Clinical ketosis is rarely seen in the dog; when it is observed, it is
usually associated with diabetes, so this should be the first condition
to investigate as a possible cause in this species

Acidosis
High fat diet
Starvation or fasting carbohydrate stores are depleted and
metabolism of fat predominates
The adult dog is comparatively resistant to the development of ketosis
during fasting, but puppies develop a marked ketosis.
Impaired liver function
After ether or chloroform anesthesia
Prolonged vomiting and diarrhea a type of starvation ketosis
Infectious diseases associated with caloric imbalance
Milk fever if prolonged
Endocrine disorders
Hyperfunction of the anterior pituitary or adrenal cortex
Excess of female sex hormones

Blood
Methods
Occultest reagent test
Hematest reagent test
Benzidine reaction
Procedure : Take 3ml of saturated solution of benzidine
in alcohol, acidified with acetic acid, add 2ml of urine
suspected for blood and1ml of 3 H2o2.
Formation of blue colour indicative of presence of
blood in the urine.

Interpretation

Distinction between hematuria and hemoglobinuria is of tremendous diagnostic

significance

A .Hematuria intact erythrocytes incorporated in the urine

Acute nephritis
Nephrosis marked degeneration
Renal infarction , Passive congestion of kidney
Neoplasm of kidney, bladder, or prostate
Urolithiasis urethral, cystic, or renal
Abscess of kidney , Pyelitis , Pyelonephritis
Ureteritis , Cystitis , Urethritis
Trauma to urethra usually from improper catheterization
During estrus or postpartum in female from contamination by uterine or
vaginal discharges
Severe infections anthrax, leptospirosis, infectious canine hepatitis

Chemical agents
Copper poisoning
Mercury poisoning
Sulfonamides
Phenol
Methenamine
Thrombocytopenia
Sweetclover poisoning
Parasites
Dioctophyma renale in the canine
Dirofilaria immitis in the canine
Acute vegetative endocarditis and congestive heart failure in the canine.

B. Hemoglobinuria hemoglobin in the urine is due to excessive

hemolysis of erythrocytes
Parturient hemoglobinuria
Bacillary hemoglobinuria Clostridium hemolyticum , Clostridium
perfringens, type A
Leptospirosis
Piroplasmosis or babesiasis
Hemoglobinuria is an important sign in the differentiation of this disease
from anaplasmosis because hemoglobinuria is absent in anaplasmosis.
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
Incompatible blood transfusion
Photosensitization
Severe burns

Chemical hemolytic agents

Sulfonamides
Copper
Mercury
Other
Mercury
Hellebore
Ranunculus
Convolvulus
Oak shoots
Ash

Bilirubin (bile)

Methods
Foam test
Hays test
Icotest reagent test

Gmelin test
Principle - Bile pigments are oxidized by acids to colored derivatives.
Procedure : In a test tube place 2 ml of nitric acid that has become yellow
from age and partial oxidation. A piece of applicator stick placed in nitric
acid will give the yellow nitric acid required for the test.
Overlay the acid with 2 ml of urine.
When bile is present, a ring will form at the junction of the two fluids, and
the colors green and violet can best be seen by holding the tube against a
white background.

Interpretation

The threshold for bilirubin in the normal dog kidney is low.

Urine from the normal dog often contains some bilirubin, especially if the
sample is concentrated. Tests for bilirubin will frequently be slightly positive in
the absence of liver disease.
Pathologic bilirubinuria
Bilirubin must be conjugated by liver to pass through normal glomeruli.
Conjugated bilirubin may spill into urine following excessive accumulation in
blood.
Causes
Hepatocellular disease
Infectious canine hepatitis
Leptospirosis
Cirrhosis
Neoplasia
Toxicities
Obstruction of bile ducts any cause

Urobilinogen
Methods
Wallace diamond test
Urobilstics

Interpretation
Normal urobilinogen
Urobilinogen is a chromagen that is formed in the
intestines by the reducing action of bacteria on
bilirubin. A portion is excreted in the feces, but some is
absorbed into the portal circulation and returned to and
removed by the liver through the bile.
Some of the urobilinogen enters the kidney during the
period it is in the general circulation, and a small
amount is excreted in the urine.

Decreased amount or absence of urine urobilinogen

Obstruction of biliary passages
Decreased destruction of erythrocytes
Impaired intestinal absorption as in diarrhea
Certain antibiotics especially aureomycin; inhibition of intestinal bacteria
interferes with the formation of urobilinogen
Nephritis
Increased amount of urine urobilinogen
Hepatitis damaged liver cells cannot effectively remove urobilinogen from
the portal circulation
Cirrhosis of the liver
Hemolytic jaundice - Excessive hemolysis of erythrocytes results in an
increased amount of bilirubin, with an increase in the production of
urobilinogen in the intestines and an abnormally large amount of urobilinogen
excreted in the urine.

Microscopic examination of urine

General considerations
The microscopic examination of urine is of great clinical
importance and should never be omitted.
Recognition of significant objects in urine sediment can only be
accomplished by experience.
Important structures to identify include casts, erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and bacteria.
If the urine sample is small, it should be centrifuged first to insure
an adequate amount of sediment; the supernatant can be used for
the chemical tests.
Casts and erythrocytes disappear upon standing, so examination
should be made on fresh specimens.
Normal urine usually contains little sediment. There may be an
occasional leukocyte, epithelial cells, mucus, crystals, and bacteria
if the urine was not collected aseptically.

Method

Agitate the urine to suspend any sediment that may have settled to the
bottom.
Fill a centrifuge tube with urine to within % in. of the top and centrifuge
for 3 min at a low rate of speed.
Pour all the urine out of the tube. When the tube is placed in an upright
position, there is sufficient urine on the sides to drain to the bottom and
suspend the sediment.
Mix the sediment with the urine by striking the bottom of the tube with a
finger, pour a drop on a glass slide, and cover with a coverglass that has been
wiped clean of oil and lint.
Examine under the microscope with the low power objective and subdued
light; then examine with the high power objective to identify smaller objects.
Findings should be reported as the average number seen per low power or
high power field, or few, many, or abundant.
If necessary, stain with new methylene blue or Sternheimer-Malbin stain.

Organized sediment
1. Epithelial cells
Types
(1) Squamous epithelial cells
Largest of the cells appearing in urine sediment
Have an irregular outline and occur singly or in sheets
Contain a small, round nucleus
Derived from the superficial layer of the urethra and vagina

(2) Transitional epithelial cells

Various forms, including round, oval, spindle-shape, and caudate
Intermediate in size between the squamous epithelial cell and the renal ceil
Often granular in texture and contain a small nucleus
Derived from part of the urethra, bladder, ureters, and pelves of the kidneys

(3) Renal epithelial cells

Small, round cells with a single nucleus
Slightly larger than leukocytes
Even when the urine is freshly collected, cellular structure is insufficiently defined
due to degeneration.
Usually can be identified with certainty only when the renal cells are incorporated in
epithelial casts
Significance
A certain number of epithelial cells in urine is normal.
Squamous epithelial cells may appear in large numbers, especially in voided samples
from female animals.
Occasional transitional cells are normally present.
In certain pathological conditions, cells are greatly increased in number.
Renal cells are present in acute interstitial nephritis, but usually cannot be recognized.
Transitional cells are increased in cystitis and pyelonephritis

2. Erythrocytes
Yellow to orange, but may be colorless if they have been in the urine long
enough for hemoglobin to dissolve out
Smaller than leukocytes and contain no internal structure, so are often
confused with oil droplets or amorphous urates
Usually round, but may vary greatly in appearance according to the
physical and chemical properties of the urine
In concentrated urine the erythrocytes are likely to be crenated.
In dilute urine they are swollen and appear as faint colorless rings.
If in doubt about the identification, add a drop of dilute acetic acid or
saponin solution, which dissolves the erythrocytes, or use one of the
chemical tests for blood on the sediment left in the tube.

Significance denotes hemorrhage somewhere in the genitourinary tract

If catheterization was employed to obtain the urine, this may account for
the presence of fresh blood.

3. Leukocytes or pus cells

Appear as granular cells that are larger than erythrocytes but smaller than
epithelial cells
It may be possible to distinguish the nucleus, usually segmented, but often
it has degenerated.

Significance
A few leukocytes may be present in normal urine.
Pyuria indicates a purulent process at some point in the genitourinary tract.
Contamination from the genital tract vulvitis, vaginitis, balanitis, metritis
Urethritis
Cystitis
Pyelitis or pyelonephritis
Nephritis

4 . Casts
Formation
Casts are cylindrical bodies appearing in the urinary
sediment; they are so named because their shape represents an
actual cast of the tubular lumen.
They are formed principally in the lumen of the distal tubules
and in the collecting tubules of the kidneys.
It is here that the urine is likely to reach its maximum
concentration and acidity, which favors the precipitation of
protein.
When cells and cellular debris are present in the tubules, they
are included in the hyaline matrix at the time of its formation
as casts, giving rise to a variety of types.

Types of casts
Hyaline
Granular
Epithelial
Waxy
Fatty
Blood
Bile stained

Microorganisms
1. Bacteria
With use of the high power objective, bacteria are seen as small
objects displaying true motility or Brownian movement.
It is often possible to ascertain the morphology of the bacteria
present, but staining will increase the accuracy of the identification.

2. Yeast
Colorless, round to ovoid, budding, and variable in size
Larger than bacteria, but smaller than leukocytes
3. Fungi
Usually characterized by distinct hyphae, are segmented, and may
be colored

4. Parasite ova that may be seen in urine sediment include

Stephanurus dentatus swine kidney worm
Dioctophyma renale giant kidney worm of the dog and mink
Capillaria plica bladder worm of the dog, cat, and fox
Dirofilaria immitis microfilaria may appear in urine rare
Urine samples contaminated by feces may contain a variety of
parasite ova.
5. Protozoa
Trichomonas and Giardia are usually the result of fecal
contamination or contamination by genital secretions.

Spermatozoa
Easily recognized by their characteristic structure

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