GRAPHICAL METHODS

A. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
B. INTRODUCTION
C. GRAPHS AND CHARTS
D. PLOTS
E. QUALITY TOOLS TEAM
EXERCISE
16-1

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Understand and
calculate basic
graphical
methods.
Create charts,
graphs and plots
within Minitab
and interpret
their meaning.
16-2

INTRODUCTION

Variety of tools described to aid with collecting, compiling

and analyzing data, leading to knowledge.
Presenting information in the form of graphs, charts and
plots can be enlightening as well as give insight to invalid
statistical tests.
Techniques can give information to the discovery and
implementation of beneficial process improvements.

16-3

GRAPHS & CHARTS

In this section we will cover graphs and charts which will
assist you in identifying the root cause of problems and
improving the process.

16-4

RUN CHARTS
Permits the study of data for trends over time, where
XAxis is time and Y-Axis is the measured variable.
Compare performance measurements before a solution is
implemented to measure its impact.
Useful in uncovering changes in process and compares
current and historic performances.
20-25 points are generally needed for baselines.
Focuses attention on the truly vital changes in the
process.

16-5

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

A Company produces different kinds of devices to measure
radiation. As the Engineer, you are concerned with a device
that uses a membrane cover to consistently measure the
amount of radiation. You want to analyze the data from
tests of twenty devices collected in an experimental
chamber. After every test you record the amount of
radiation that each device measured. As an exploratory
measure, you decide to construct a run chart to evaluate
the variation in your measurements.

16-6

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE CONT.

To construct a Run Chart proceed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Open the file Radon.mtw located in the GBData directory.

Choose Stat > Quality Tools > Run Chart.
In Single column, Select Membrane.
In Subgroup size, type 1.
Click OK.

16-7

INTERPRETING THE RESULTS

Minitab performs tests for non-random
behavior.
Individual observations are plotted and a
horizontal reference is added at the median.
A normal pattern for a controlled process is
one of randomness.
As indicated on the graph, the number of
expected runs are close to the number of runs
about the median and runs up or down.
The P-value is greater than .05 suggesting the
data is from a random distribution.
Test of Randomness
Condition
Number of runs about the more runs observed than
median
expected
fewer runs observed than
expected
Number of runs up or
more runs observed than
down
expected
fewer runs observed than
expected

Indicates
mixed data from two
population
clustering of data
oscillation-data varies up
and down rapidly
trending of data

16-8

PARETO CHART
Pareto charts helps identify the source of chronic problem
and common causes.
The Pareto principle states:
Vital few (20%) of the process characteristics cause
the majority of the problems.
Trivial many (80%) of the process characteristics
cause only a small portion of the quality problems.
Visualizes the relative frequency or size of the problem in a
descending bar graph.
To identify the root cause of problems, numerous levels of
Pareto charts have to be created.

16-9

PARETO CHARTS (LEVEL 1)

Levimex GFCI- First Time Pass Autotester Level I
100

100

60
50
40

Percent

Count

80

20
0

Defect
Count
Percent
Cum %

dB
Re

on
utt

rip
oT
-N

55.7
55.7
55.7

ad
De

No

32.3
32.3
88.0

p
Tri
/L5
L4

Tri

c.
pe
eS
d
i
uts
pO

12.0
12.0
100.0

First Level Pareto Chart on the GFCIs (Ground Fault Circuit

Interrupter) in Levimex.
Final Autotester results show defects over a period of time
resulted in the Red Button contributing approximately 56% of
the problems.
16-10

PARETO CHARTS (LEVEL 2)

Analysis of Dead Failure Level II
100

100

60
50
40

Percent

Count

80

20
0

Defect
Count
Percent
Cum %

oil
lC
ti a
n
re
iffe

30.60
30.6
30.6

e
rok

n
ort
Sh

CB
it P
u
c
Cir

23.19
23.2
53.8

in
bb
Bo
d
i
o
len
So

17.74
17.7
71.5

en
rok
of
ck
La

CB
-P
MR
F
r/X
lde
So

16.13
16.1
87.7

r
he
Ot

12.34
12.3
100.0

Second level Pareto on Red Button failures found that 31% of

the problems were from broken Differential Coils which were
manufactured in another area of the facility.

16-11

PARETO CHARTS (LEVEL 3)

LEVIMEX GFCI - Differential Transformer Coil Broken Level III
100

100

60
50
40

Percent

Count

80

20
0

Defect
Count
Percent
Cum %

0
Hit
ton
Pis

40.47
40.5
40.5

k
Br

in
tP

ort
Sh

29.80
29.8
70.3

rs
he
Ot

19.30
19.3
89.6

W
en
ok
Br

ire

10.43
10.4
100.0

Third Level Pareto isolated the root cause of the problem Broken Differential Coils.
Isolated root cause(s) and was a key factor in producing
dramatic results in a short period of time.

16-12

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

A Company manufactures metal bookcases. During final
inspection, a certain number of bookcases are rejected due
to scratches, chips, bends, or dents. You want to make a
Pareto chart to see which defect is causing most of your
problems. First you count the number of times each defect
occurred, and then you enter the name of the defect each
time it occurs into a worksheet column called Damage.

16-13

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE CONT.

To construct a Pareto Chart proceed as follows:
1. Open the file Exh_qc.mtw located in the GBData
directory.
2. Choose Stat > Quality Tools > Pareto Chart.
3. Choose Chart defects data in and select Damage in the
text box.
4. Click OK.

16-14

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE RESULTS

As indicated above, 75% of the damage is due to chips and

scratches. As a result you would focus improvement efforts
there.

16-15

Cause & Effect Diagram

Known also as Fishbone or Ishikawa diagram.
Used as an effective problem solving tool.
Helps to trigger ideas and promote a balanced approach
to brainstorming sessions.
Individuals list the perceived sources (causes) of a
problem (effect).
Consider the six areas (causes) that can contribute to a
response (effect): materials, machine, method, personnel,
measurement, environment.
Each should be investigated for sub-causes that are
specific to a potential cause of a problem.

16-16

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

While generating a Pareto chart in Exh_qc.mtw you

discovered that your parts were rejected most often due to
surface flaws. To assist in determining the potential cause(s)
of these flaws, a cause and effect diagram will be developed.
Proceed as follows using Exh_qc.mtw.

16-17

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

16-18

CAUSE & EFFECT MATRIX

Helps in prioritizing important key process input variables
and can be used as input when developing an FMEA.
Aids in the selection of what will be monitored and if there
is a cause & effect relationship.
Helps to quantify team consensus on relationships
between key input and key output variables.
Serves as an input for other tools such as, Multi Vari
Analysis, Correlation Analysis and Designs of Experiments.

16-19

CONSTRUCTING A
CAUSE & EFFECT MATRIX

10

11

12

13
Requirement

Requirement

Requirement

Requirement

Requirement

Requirement

Requirement

2. Rate each Output

according to
importance to
customer

14

5. Spreadsheet
multiplies
the
0
0
importance
x
0
0
association
and adds
0
0
across
inputs
Total

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

15
Requirement

Requirement

4. Rate each
Inputs strength of
Association with
Outputs

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Total

3. List Key Process

1
Input Variables - 23Both
4
Incoming and Knob
5
Variables 6

6
Requirement

5
Requirement

4
Requirement

3
Requirement

2
Requirement

Process Inputs

1
Requirement

1. List the Key

Process Output
Rating of
Variables (Customer
Importance to
Customer
Requirements)

6. A Pareto for
inputs is
provided and is
a start point for
FMEA

16-20

CONSTRUCTING A CAUSE & EFFECT MATRIX

1. List horizontally the key process output variables that were identified when
documenting the process (Process Mapping). These variables are to
represent what the customer of the process considers important and
essential.
2. Assign a prioritization number, (i.e. 1 to 10), for each key process output
variable, where the higher numbers have a larger priority. These values do
not need to be sequential.
3. List vertically on the left side of the cause-and-effect matrix all key process
input variables that may cause variability or nonconformance to one or
more of the key process output variables.
4. Reach by consensus the amount of effect that each key process input
variable has on each key process output variable. Rather than use values
from 1 to 10 (where 10 indicates the largest effect), consider a scale using
levels 1, 3 and 5 or 1, 3, and 9.
5. Determine the results for each process input variable by first multiplying the
key process output priority (step 2) by the consensus of the effect for the
key process input variable (step 4) and then summing these products.
6. The key process input variables can then be prioritized by the results from
Step 5. Also, the total column can serve as a Pareto Analysis for inputs and
can be a starting point for an FMEA.

16-21

CAUSE & EFFECT MATRIX APPLICATION

EXAMPLE
Lets look at an application example, submitted by the West Jefferson
Town plant, can be found in GBdata, file Cause & Effect Matrix
Sample.doc.
Open-up the file and review (Text is on this and next slide)!
During the Green Belt Candidate project for the West Jefferson Town
plant, the Core Team focused on increasing the productivity of one of
its wall plate packaging machines. The initial data showed that the
machine was performing at 55% of capacity. By completing a Cause
& Effect Matrix, the Core Team wanted to identify Key Process Input
Variables. These KPIVs would be used as the focus of improvements
during this project. The Team rated each process output according to
its importance to production, 1 to 10, with 10 having the most
importance. Then each process input was rated according to its
contribution to achieving each output, 1 to 10, with 10 being the
highest contribution.
16-22

CAUSE & EFFECT MATRIX APPLICATION

First Row - Rating of importance to customer.
Third Row - Key process output variables - Key to customer.
Vertically on the left side - Key process input variables that may cause
variability or nonconformance to one or more of the key process output
variables.
Intersection of each Process Output Variable with each Process Input
Variable - Amount of effect that each key process input variable has on
each key process output variable, if any.
Vertically on the Right Side - The result (sum total) of input variable
effect multiplied by each intersecting process output priority
Row 6 = (7x9)+(10x6)+(6x9)+(5x2) = 187
The total column can serve as a Pareto Analysis for inputs and can be
a starting point for an FMEA.
The completed matrix gave the Team a score for each process step.
Using these scores and information gained from the Process
Characterization Matrix, Pareto Analysis, and Process Maps, the top
seven process steps were transferred to the FMEA for further
investigation.

16-23

SCATTER DIAGRAM
Assesses the relationship between two variables.
Offers a follow-up procedure to the Cause & Effect
diagram.
50 - 100 pairs of samples are plotted where the X-Axis is
the independent variable and the Y-Axis is the dependent
variable.

16-24

SCATTER DIAGRAM

Variable 1

. .
.. . . .
. . .... ..
... .
. .. . . .
Variable 2

Plotted points form clusters, the direction and tightness

will give clues to the relationship between both variables.
Clusters resembling a straight line show stronger
correlation between variables.
A straight line means that every time one variable
changed the other variable changed by the same amount.

16-25

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

16-26

SCATTER DIAGRAM - RESULTS

As indicated above, there is a positive relationship between Customer

(X) and Supplier (Y) since as X increases, so does Y. This provides an
indication that X and Y are related. Also, a negative relationship (X
increases, Y decreases) is as important as a positive relationship.

16-27

HISTOGRAM
Used to summarize data from a
process over a period of time and
graphically present its frequency
distribution in a bar form.
Reveals the amount of variation
that any process has within it.
Created using individual
observations or by grouping
observations into cells.

16-28

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

16-29

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE RESULTS

16-30

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE RESULTS, cont.

Some helpful tips to be aware of while interpreting a Histogram:

Some processes are naturally skewed, dont expect every
distribution to follow a typical bell-shaped curve.
Always look for twin peaks indicating that the data is coming
from two or more different sources such as shifts or machines.
Be suspicious of the accuracy of the data. If the data stops at
one point on the chart, such as a specification limit, without
some previous decline in number, the data might be inaccurate.
Note: To create a histogram with a normal curve, choose
Graph > Histogram and select With Fit.

16-31

PIE CHART
Simple graphs in which the entire circle represents 100% of
the data.
The circle is divided into percentage slices showing the
largest shares of data.
Useful in the same way as a Pareto Chart.
Mark subject matter clearly showing percentages and what
each slice represents.

16-32

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

As an engineer, you wish to examine the distribution of
defects in parts that your company produces. You have
data from all the different plants that produce parts. You
use a pie chart to view this distribution for one month of
production.

16-33

16-34

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE - RESULTS

The Pie Chart shows the distribution of all defects in parts produced in
June. By choosing decreasing order, you see the categories arranged
from largest to smallest. As seen by the chart percentages the four top
categories for defects are finish, dents scratches and O-ring and make
up for approximately 84% of the defects found in all the plants. 16-35

PLOTS

Similar to graphs and

charts, plots will also
assist you in identifying
the root cause of
problems as well as
improving the process.

16-36

BOX PLOT (WHISKER PLOT)

A box plot (or box and whisker plot) is useful to pictorially describe various
aspects of data. Box plots can describe one set of data or visually show
differences between characteristics of a data set. It is similar to a histogram,
except plotted on its side.

16-37

BOX PLOT (WHISKER PLOT)

A line is drawn across the box at the median(50th percentile). By default,

the bottom of the box is at the first quartile (Q1; 25% of the data), and the
top is at the third quartile (Q3; 75% of data) value. The whiskers are the
lines that extend from the top and bottom of the box to the adjacent values.
The adjacent values are the lowest and highest observations that are still
inside the region defined by the following limits:
Lower Limit:
Upper Limit:

Q1 - 1.5 (Q3 - Q1)

Q3 + 1.5 (Q3 - Q1)

Outliers are points outside of the lower and upper limits and are plotted
16-38
with asterisks (*).

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

16-39

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE RESULTS

Highest point within
Q3+1.5(Q3-Q1)

Q3: 75%

Median
Q1: 25%

Lowest point within

Q1-1.5 (Q3-Q1)

As indicated above, the pulse for males (group 1) shows a tighter distribution
as well as lower reading; in general. Even though the median is about the
same, the upper limit for group 2 (about 140) is much higher than group 1
(about 95). Also, the 75th percentile for group 2 is about 100 versus group 1,
which is about 85. Lastly, group 1 has 1 outlier.

16-40

BOX PLOT APPLICATION EXAMPLE

Box Plot Example.doc, located in GBdata, provides a box

plot application example submitted by the Morganton facility.
Open up the file, and review the tools application.

16-41

DOT PLOT

Illustrates data positioning and its variability.

Displays a dot for each observation along a numbered line.
Dots are stacked when data are close together.
If too many dots exist, each dot may represent more than one
dot.
Generates for several variables at once and creates plots for
each group within a variable.

16-42

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE

16-43

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE CONT.

16-44

MINITAB APPLICATION EXERCISE - RESULTS

Because you requested grouping, the Dotplot command creates a graph

window with five dotplots, each corresponding to a different week of the
study. The bottom dotplot corresponds to the first entered column, or the
week 1 data, while the top dotplot corresponds to the last entered column, or
the week 5 data. These dotplots show that the highest ozone damage to
azalea variety A occurred in week 1 and 4.

16-45

QUALITY TOOLS TEAM EXERCISE

Working as a team, brainstorm to determine KPOVs and
KPIVs related to the operation of a catapult (hitting a desired
target distance with a projectile). Consider outputs such as
target distance from catapult base, target height and
accuracy.
Utilizing your KPOVs and KPIVs, develop a cause and
effect matrix to assist in prioritizing those KPIVs that must be
controlled/monitored during operation of the catapult.

16-46

QUALITY TOOLS TEAM EXERCISE

cont
A blank Cause & Effect Matrix is located in GBdata named
Cause&Effect.xls. Allow 1 hour for this exercise and be
prepared to present your results to the class.

16-47