Chapter Eighteen

Discriminant and Logit Analysis

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18-1

Chapter Outline
1) Overview
2) Basic Concept
3) Relation to Regression and ANOVA
4) Discriminant Analysis Model
5) Statistics Associated with Discriminant Analysis

6) Conducting Discriminant Analysis

i. Formulation
ii. Estimation
iii. Determination of Significance
iv. Interpretation
v. Validation
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Chapter Outline
7)

Multiple Discriminant Analysis

i.

Formulation

ii.

Estimation

iii. Determination of Significance

iv. Interpretation
v.
8)

Validation

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis

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Chapter Outline
9) The Logit Model
i.

Estimation

ii.

Model Fit

iii. Significance Testing

iv. Interpretation of Coefficients
v.

An Illustrative Application

10) Summary
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18-4

Similarities and Differences between

ANOVA, Regression, and Discriminant
Analysis
Table
18.1

ANOVA REGRESSION
DISCRIMINANT/LOGIT
Similarities
Number of
One
dependent
variables
Number of
independent Multiple
variables

One

One

Multiple

Multiple

Differences
Nature of the
dependent Metric
Metric
variables
Nature of the
independent Categorical
2007
Prentice Hall
variables

Categorical
Metric

Metric

18-5

Discriminant Analysis
Discriminant analysis is a technique for analyzing
data when the criterion or dependent variable is
categorical and the predictor or independent variables
are interval in nature.
The objectives of discriminant analysis are as follows:
Development of discriminant functions, or linear
combinations of the predictor or independent variables,
which will best discriminate between the categories of
the criterion or dependent variable (groups).
Examination of whether significant differences exist
among the groups, in terms of the predictor variables.
Determination of which predictor variables contribute to
most of the intergroup differences.
Classification of cases to one of the groups based on the
values of the predictor variables.
Evaluation of the accuracy of classification.
18-6

2007 Prentice Hall

Discriminant Analysis

When the criterion variable has two categories, the

technique is known as two-group discriminant analysis.
When three or more categories are involved, the technique
is referred to as multiple discriminant analysis.
The main distinction is that, in the two-group case, it is
possible to derive only one discriminant function. In
multiple discriminant analysis, more than one function may
be computed. In general, with G groups and k predictors,
it is possible to estimate up to the smaller of G - 1, or k,
discriminant functions.
The first function has the highest ratio of between-groups
to within-groups sum of squares. The second function,
uncorrelated with the first, has the second highest ratio,
and so on. However, not all the functions may be
statistically significant.

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18-7

Geometric Interpretation
Fig. 18.1

G1

X2

1
1

1
1
1 1 1
1
1

2
11
1
1
2 22
21

2
2
2
2 2
2
22
22

G2

G1
G2

X1
D

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18-8

Discriminant Analysis Model

The discriminant analysis model involves linear combinations of
the following form:
D = b 0 + b 1 X 1 + b 2 X 2 + b 3 X3 + . . . + b k Xk
Where:
D =

discriminant score

b 's

discriminant coefficient or weight

X 's

predictor or independent variable

The coefficients, or weights (b), are estimated so that the groups

differ as much as possible on the values of the discriminant function.

This occurs when the ratio of between-group sum of squares to withingroup sum of squares for the discriminant scores is at a maximum.

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18-9

Statistics Associated
with Discriminant
Canonical correlation. Canonical correlation measures
Analysis

the extent of association between the discriminant scores

and the groups. It is a measure of association between
the single discriminant function and the set of dummy
variables that define the group membership.

Centroid. The centroid is the mean values for the

discriminant scores for a particular group. There are as
many centroids as there are groups, as there is one for
each group. The means for a group on all the functions
are the group centroids.

Classification matrix. Sometimes also called confusion

or prediction matrix, the classification matrix contains
the number of correctly classified and misclassified
cases.

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18-10

Statistics Associated with

Discriminant Analysis

Discriminant function coefficients. The

discriminant function coefficients (unstandardized)
are the multipliers of variables, when the variables
are in the original units of measurement.

Discriminant scores. The unstandardized

coefficients are multiplied by the values of the
variables. These products are summed and added to
the constant term to obtain the discriminant scores.

Eigenvalue. For each discriminant function, the

Eigenvalue is the ratio of between-group to withingroup sums of squares. Large Eigenvalues imply
superior functions.

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18-11

Statistics Associated with

Discriminant Analysis

F values and their significance. These are

calculated from a one-way ANOVA, with the grouping
variable serving as the categorical independent
variable. Each predictor, in turn, serves as the metric
dependent variable in the ANOVA.

Group means and group standard deviations.

These are computed for each predictor for each group.

Pooled within-group correlation matrix. The

pooled within-group correlation matrix is computed by
averaging the separate covariance matrices for all the
groups.

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18-12

Statistics Associated with

Discriminant Analysis

Standardized discriminant function coefficients. The

standardized discriminant function coefficients are the discriminant
function coefficients and are used as the multipliers when the
variables have been standardized to a mean of 0 and a variance of
1.
Structure correlations. Also referred to as discriminant loadings,
the structure correlations represent the simple correlations between
the predictors and the discriminant function.
Total correlation matrix. If the cases are treated as if they were
from a single sample and the correlations computed, a total
correlation matrix is obtained.
Wilks' . Sometimes also called the U statistic, Wilks' for each
predictor is the ratio of the within-group sum of squares to the total
sum of squares. Its value varies between 0 and 1. Large values
of (near 1) indicate that group means do not seem to be different.
Small values of (near 0) indicate that the group means seem to be
different.

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18-13

Conducting Discriminant
Analysis
Fig. 18.2

Formulate the Problem

Estimate the Discriminant Function Coefficients
Determine the Significance of the Discriminant
Function
Interpret the Results
Assess Validity of Discriminant Analysis
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18-14

Conducting Discriminant
Analysis
Identify the objectives, the criterion variable, and the
Formulate
the Problem
independent variables.
The criterion variable must consist of two or more mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories.
The predictor variables should be selected based on a
theoretical model or previous research, or the experience
of the researcher.
One part of the sample, called the estimation or analysis
sample, is used for estimation of the discriminant
function.
The other part, called the holdout or validation sample,
is reserved for validating the discriminant function.
Often the distribution of the number of cases in the
analysis and validation samples follows the distribution in
the total sample.

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18-15

Information on Resort Visits:

Analysis Sample
Table 18.2
Annual

Attitude

Importance Household Age of

Amount
Resort
Head of
Spent on
Travel
($000)
Vacation

1
1
M (2)
2
1
H (3)
3
1
H (3)
4
1
L (1)
5
1
H (3)
6
1
H (3)
7
1
M Prentice
(2)
2007
Hall

Family

Toward

Attached
No.

to Family

Size
Visit
Household

Income
Family

Vacation

50.2

43

70.3

61

62.9

52

48.5

36

52.7

55

75.0

68

46.2

62

18-16

Information on Resort Visits:

Analysis Sample
Table 18.2, cont.
Annual

Attitude

Importance Household Age of

Amount
Resort
Head of
Spent on
Income
Travel
Household Family
($000)
Vacation
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

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32.1
36.2
43.2
50.4
44.1
38.3
55.0
46.1
35.0
37.3
41.8
57.0
33.4

Family

Toward

Attached
No.

Size
Visit

to Family
Vacation

5
4
2
5
6
6
1
3
6
2
5
8
6

4
3
5
2
6
6
2
5
4
7
1
3
8

3
2
2
4
3
2
2
3
5
4
3
2
2

58
55
57
37
42
45
57
51
64
54
56
36
50

L
L
M
M
M
L
M
L
L
L
M
M
L

(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(1)

18-17

Information on Resort
Visits:
Table
Holdout Sample
18.3

Annual

Attitude

Importance Household Age of

Amount
Head of
Income
Family

Resort
Spent on
Travel

Family

Toward

50.8
63.6
54.0
45.0
68.0
62.1
35.0
49.6
39.4
37.0

Size
Visit

to Family

($000)
Vacation

1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
2
8
2
9
2
2
200710
Prentice Hall

Attached
No.

Household

Vacation

4
7
6
5
6
5
4
5
6
2

7
4
7
4
6
6
3
3
5
6

3
7
4
3
6
3
4
5
3
5

45
55
58
60
46
56
54
39
44
51

M(2)
H (3)
M(2)
M(2)
H (3)
H (3)
L (1)
L (1)
H (3)
L (1)

18-18

Conducting Discriminant
Analysis
Estimate the Discriminant
Function Coefficients

The direct method involves estimating the

discriminant function so that all the predictors are
included simultaneously.

In stepwise discriminant analysis, the predictor

variables are entered sequentially, based on their
ability to discriminate among groups.

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18-19

Analysis
Table
18.4

GROUP MEANS
VISIT

INCOME

TRAVEL VACATION

HSIZE

1
2
Total

60.52000
41.91333
51.21667

5.40000
4.33333
4.86667

4.33333
2.80000
3.56667

5.80000
4.06667
4.9333

AGE
53.73333
50.13333
51.93333

Group Standard Deviations

1
2
Total

9.83065
7.55115
12.79523

1.91982
1.95180
1.97804

1.82052
2.05171
2.09981

Pooled Within-Groups Correlation Matrix

INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
AGE

1.00000
0.19745
0.09148
0.08887
- 0.01431

1.00000
0.08434
-0.01681
-0.19709

1.00000
0.07046
0.01742

1.23443
.94112
1.33089
HSIZE

1.00000
-0.04301

8.77062
8.27101
8.57395
AGE

1.00000

Wilks' (U-statistic) and univariate F ratio with 1 and 28 degrees of freedom

Variable

Wilks'

INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
AGE

0.45310
0.92479
0.82377
0.65672
0.95441

2007 Prentice Hall

F
33.800
2.277
5.990
14.640
1.338

Significance
0.0000
0.1425
0.0209
0.0007
0.2572

Cont.
18-20

Results of Two-Group Discriminant

Analysis
Table 18.4, cont.
CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS
Function Eigenvalue
Significance
1*

1.7862

% of
Cum Canonical
After
Variance % Correlation Function
100.00

100.00

Wilks'

Chi-square

: 0
0 .3589
0.8007 :

26.130

df
5

0.0001

* marks the 1 canonical discriminant functions remaining in the analysis.

Standard Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients

FUNC
INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
AGE

0.74301
0.09611
0.23329
0.46911
0.20922

Structure Matrix:

Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables & canonical discriminant

functions (variables ordered by size of correlation within function)
FUNC
INCOME
HSIZE
VACATION
TRAVEL
AGE
2007
Prentice Hall

0.82202
0.54096
0.34607
0.21337
0.16354

Cont.
18-21

Results of Two-Group Discriminant

Table 18.4, cont.
Analysis
Unstandardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients
FUNC 1
INCOME
0.8476710E-01
TRAVEL
0.4964455E-01
VACATION 0.1202813
HSIZE
0.4273893
AGE
0.2454380E-01
(constant) -7.975476
Canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group means (group centroids)
Group
FUNC 1
1
1.29118
2
-1.29118
Classification results for cases selected for use in analysis
Predicted
Group
Actual Group
No. of Cases
1
Group

15

Group

15

12
80.0%

0
0.0%
Percent of grouped cases correctly classified: 90.00%

Membership
2
3
20.0%
15
100.0%

Cont.

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18-22

Results of Two-Group Discriminant

Analysis
Table 18.4,
cont.

Classification Results for cases not selected for

use in the analysis (holdout sample)
Predicted
Actual Group

Group
Membership
No. of Cases 1
2

Group

4
66.7%

2
33.3%

Group

0
0.0%

6
100.0%

Percent of grouped cases correctly classified: 83.33%.

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18-23

Conducting Discriminant Analysis

Determine the Significance of
Discriminant Function

The null hypothesis that, in the population, the means

of all discriminant functions in all groups are equal can
be statistically tested.

In SPSS this test is based on Wilks'

. If several

functions are tested simultaneously (as in the case of

multiple discriminant analysis), the Wilks' statistic is
the product of the univariate for each function. The
significance level is estimated based on a chi-square
transformation of the statistic.

If the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating significant

discrimination, one can proceed to interpret the results.

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18-24

Conducting Discriminant
Analysis
The interpretation of the discriminant weights, or coefficients, is
similar to that inthe
multiple
regression analysis.
Interpret
Results

Given the multicollinearity in the predictor variables, there is no

unambiguous measure of the relative importance of the predictors
in discriminating between the groups.
With this caveat in mind, we can obtain some idea of the relative
importance of the variables by examining the absolute magnitude of
the standardized discriminant function coefficients.
Some idea of the relative importance of the predictors can also be
obtained by examining the structure correlations, also called
canonical loadings or discriminant loadings. These simple
correlations between each predictor and the discriminant function
represent the variance that the predictor shares with the function.
Another aid to interpreting discriminant analysis results is to
develop a Characteristic profile for each group by describing each
group in terms of the group means for the predictor variables.

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18-25

Conducting Discriminant Analysis

Assess Validity of Discriminant
Many computer programs, such as SPSS, offer a leave-oneAnalysis

out cross-validation option.

The discriminant weights, estimated by using the analysis

sample, are multiplied by the values of the predictor
variables in the holdout sample to generate discriminant
scores for the cases in the holdout sample. The cases are
then assigned to groups based on their discriminant scores
and an appropriate decision rule. The hit ratio, or the
percentage of cases correctly classified, can then be
determined by summing the diagonal elements and dividing
by the total number of cases.

It is helpful to compare the percentage of cases correctly

classified by discriminant analysis to the percentage that
would be obtained by chance. Classification accuracy
achieved by discriminant analysis should be at least 25%
greater than that obtained by chance.

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18-26

Results of Three-Group Discriminant

Table 18.5
Analysis
Group Means
AMOUNT

INCOME

TRAVEL

VACATION

HSIZE

38.57000

4.50000

4.70000

50.11000

4.00000

4.20000

64.97000

6.10000

5.90000

4.20000

56.00000

Total

51.21667

4.86667

4.93333

3.56667

51.93333

3.10000
3.40000

AGE
50.30000
49.50000

Group Standard Deviations

1

5.29718

1.71594

1.88856

1.19722

8.09732

6.00231

2.35702

2.48551

1.50555

9.25263

8.61434

1.19722

1.66333

1.13529

7.60117

Total

12.79523

1.97804

2.09981

1.33089

8.57395

Pooled Within-Groups Correlation Matrix

INCOME

TRAVEL

VACATION

HSIZE

INCOME

1.00000

TRAVEL

0.05120

1.00000

VACATION

0.30681

0.03588

1.00000

HSIZE

0.38050

0.00474

0.22080

1.00000

AGE

-0.20939

-0.34022

-0.01326

-0.02512

2007 Prentice Hall

AGE

1.00000 Cont.

18-27

Results of Three-Group Discriminant

Table 18.5, cont.
Analysis

Wilks' (U-statistic) and univariate F ratio with 2 and 27 degrees of

freedom.
Variable

Wilks' Lambda

INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
AGE

0.26215
0.78790
0.87411
0.88214

Significance

38.00
0.0000
3.634 0.0400
0.88060
1.830
1.944
0.1626
1.804 0.1840

0.1797

CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS

Function Eigenvalue
Significance
1*
4
2*

3.8190
0.24
0.2469

% of
Cum Canonical
After
Variance % Correlation Function
93.93
6.07

: 0
0.8902

93.93
100.00

0.4450

Wilks'

Chi-square df

0.1664
: 1

44.831 10
0.00
0.8020
5.517

* marks the two canonical discriminant functions remaining in the analysis.

Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients

INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
2007
Prentice Hall
AGE

FUNC 1
1.04740
0.33991
-0.14198
-0.16317
0.49474

-0.42076
0.76851
0.53354
0.12932
0.52447

FUNC

2
Cont.
18-28

Results of Three-Group Discriminant

Analysis
Table 18.5, cont.
Structure Matrix:
Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables and canonical
discriminant functions (variables ordered by size of correlation within function)
INCOME
HSIZE
VACATION
TRAVEL
AGE

FUNC 1
0.85556*
0.19319*
0.21935
0.14899
0.16576

FUNC 2
-0.27833
0.07749
0.58829*
0.45362*
0.34079*

Unstandardized canonical discriminant function coefficients

INCOME
TRAVEL
VACATION
HSIZE
AGE
(constant)

FUNC 1
FUNC 2
0.1542658
-0.6197148E-01
0.1867977
0.4223430
-0.6952264E-01
0.2612652
-0.1265334
0.1002796
0.5928055E-01
0.6284206E-01
-11.09442
-3.791600

Canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group means (group centroids)

Group
1
2
3

FUNC 1
-2.04100
-0.40479
2.44578

2007 Prentice Hall

FUNC 2
0.41847
-0.65867
0.24020

Cont.
18-29

Results of Three-Group Discriminant

Analysis
Table 18.5, cont.
Classification Results:
Actual Group
Group

Predicted Group Membership

No. of Cases
1
2
3
10

9
90.0%

1
10.0%

0
0.0%

1
10.0%

9
90.0%

0
0.0%

Group

10

Group

10

0
2
0.0%
20.0%
Percent of grouped cases correctly classified: 86.67%

8
80.0%

Classification results for cases not selected for use in the

analysis
Actual Group

Predicted Group Membership

No. of Cases 1
2
3

Group

3
75.0%

1
25.0%

0
0.0%

Group

0
0.0%

3
75.0%

1
25.0%

Group

1
0
25.0%
0.0%
of grouped cases correctly classified: 75.00%
2007 Percent
Prentice Hall

3
75.0%

18-30

All-Groups Scattergram
Fig. 18.3
Across: Function
1
Down: Function
2

4.
0

1 1
1 *1

23
1 1 12 *
2 2
1
1
2 2
1
2

0.
0

3 *3 3
3
3

-4.0
* indicates a group
centroid
-6.0
2007 Prentice Hall

-4.0 -2.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0
18-31

Territorial Map
Fig. 18.4

8.0

4.0

0.0
4.0
-8.0
-8.0

2007 Prentice Hall

13
13
Across: Function 1
13
Down: Function 2
13
13
* Indicates a
13
group
13
centroid
11 3
112
3
112233
* 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 *3
112 *
223
233
12 1 2
2233
1 1 22
223
21 2
11
233
12
122
223
2
112
233
1 12
12
2233
1 12 1 2 2
223
112
1 1 1 22
233
2

-6.0

-4.0

-2.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

18-32

Stepwise Discriminant
Analysis
Stepwise discriminant analysis is analogous to

stepwise multiple regression (see Chapter 17) in that

the predictors are entered sequentially based on
their ability to discriminate between the groups.

An F ratio is calculated for each predictor by

conducting a univariate analysis of variance in which
the groups are treated as the categorical variable
and the predictor as the criterion variable.

The predictor with the highest F ratio is the first to be

selected for inclusion in the discriminant function, if it
meets certain significance and tolerance criteria.

A second predictor is added based on the highest

adjusted or partial F ratio, taking into account the
predictor already selected.

2007 Prentice Hall

18-33

Stepwise Discriminant
Analysis

Each predictor selected is tested for retention based on

its association with other predictors selected.

The process of selection and retention is continued until

all predictors meeting the significance criteria for
inclusion and retention have been entered in the
discriminant function.

The selection of the stepwise procedure is based on the

optimizing criterion adopted. The Mahalanobis
procedure is based on maximizing a generalized
measure of the distance between the two closest groups.

The order in which the variables were selected also

indicates their importance in discriminating between the
groups.

2007 Prentice Hall

18-34

The Logit Model

The dependent variable is binary and there

are several independent variables that are
metric

The binary logit model commonly deals with

the issue of how likely is an observation to
belong to each group

It estimates the probability of an

observation belonging to a particular group

2007 Prentice Hall

18-35

Binary Logit Model

Formulation
The probability of success may be modeled using the logit model as:

P
log
a a
1 P

Or

Or

2007 Prentice Hall

... a

P
a X
log
1 P

i 0

18-36

Model Formulation
k

exp(
P
1 exp(
i 0

a X
i

a X

i 0

Where:

2007 Prentice Hall

= Probability of success

Xi

= Independent variable i

ai

= parameter to be estimated.
18-37

Properties of the Logit Model

Although Xi may vary from

to
, P is
constrained to lie between 0 and 1.

When Xi approaches

, P approaches 0.

When Xi approaches

, P approaches 1.

When OLS regression is used, P is not

constrained to lie between 0 and 1.

2007 Prentice Hall

18-38

Estimation and Model Fit

The estimation procedure is called the maximum

likelihood method.

Fit: Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square.

Both these measures are similar to R2 in multiple

regression.

The Cox & Snell R Square can not equal 1.0, even if
the fit is perfect

This limitation is overcome by the Nagelkerke R

Square.

Compare predicted and actual values of Y to

determine the percentage of correct predictions.

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18-39

Significance Testing

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18-40

Interpretation of Coefficients

If Xi is increased by one unit, the log odds will

change by ai units, when the effect of other
independent variables is held constant.

The sign of ai will determine whether the

probability increases (if the sign is positive) or
decreases (if the sign is negative) by this
amount.

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18-41

Explaining Brand Loyalty

Table 18.6
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Loyalty
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Brand
4
6
5
7
6
3
5
5
7
7
6
5
7
5
7
3
4
2
5
4
3
3
3
4
6
3
4
3
5
1

Product
3
4
2
5
3
4
5
4
5
6
7
6
3
1
5
1
6
5
2
1
3
4
6
4
3
6
3
5
5
3

Shopping
5
4
4
5
4
5
5
2
4
4
2
4
3
4
5
3
2
2
4
3
4
5
3
2
6
3
2
2
3
2

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Results of Logistic
Regression
Table 18.7

Dependent Variable Encoding

Original Value
Not Loyal

Internal Value
0

Loyal

Model Summary

Step
1

-2 Log
likelihood
23.471(a)

Cox & Snell

R Square
.453

Nagelkerke R
Square
.604

a Estimation terminated at iteration number 6 because parameter estimates changed by less than .001.

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Results of Logistic
Regression
Table 18.7, cont.

Classification Tablea
Predicted

Observed
Step 1 Loyalty to the
Brand

Not Loyal
Loyal

Loyalty to the Brand

Not Loyal
Loyal
12
3
3
12

Overall Percentage

Percentage
Correct
80.0
80.0
80.0

a.
The cut value is .500
a
Variables in the Equation
Step
1

Brand
Product
Shopping
Constant

B
1.274
.186
.590
-8.642

S.E.
.479
.322
.491
3.346

Wald
7.075
.335
1.442
6.672

df
1
1
1
1

Sig.
.008
.563
.230
.010

a.Variable(s) entered on step 1: Brand, Product, Shopping.

2007 Prentice Hall

Exp(B)
3.575
1.205
1.804
.000
18-44

SPSS Windows
The DISCRIMINANT program performs both twogroup and multiple discriminant analysis. To
select this procedure using SPSS for Windows
click:
Analyze>Classify>Discriminant
The run logit analysis or logistic regression using
SPSS for Windows, click:

Analyze > Regression>Binary Logistic

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SPSS Windows: Two-group

Discriminant
Select ANALYZE from the SPSS menu bar.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

8.

9.

Click CLASSIFY and then DISCRIMINANT.

Move visit in to the GROUPING VARIABLE box.
Click DEFINE RANGE. Enter 1 for MINIMUM and 2 for MAXIMUM.
Click CONTINUE.
Move income, travel, vacation, hsize, and age in to the
INDEPENDENTS box.
Select ENTER INDEPENDENTS TOGETHER (default option)
Click on STATISTICS. In the pop-up window, in the DESCRIPTIVES
box check MEANS and UNIVARIATE ANOVAS. In the MATRICES box
check WITHIN-GROUP CORRELATIONS. Click CONTINUE.
Click CLASSIFY.... In the pop-up window in the PRIOR
PROBABILITIES box check ALL GROUPS EQUAL (default). In the
DISPLAY box check SUMMARY TABLE and LEAVE-ONE-OUT
CLASSIFICATION. In the USE COVARIANCE MATRIX box check
WITHIN-GROUPS. Click CONTINUE.
Click OK.

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SPSS Windows: Logit

Analysis
1.

Select ANALYZE from the SPSS menu bar.

2.

Click REGRESSION and then BINARY LOGISTIC.

3.

4.

Move Loyalty to the Brand [Loyalty] in to the

DEPENDENT VARIABLE box.
Move Attitude toward the Brand [Brand},
Attitude toward the Product category
[Product}, and Attitude toward Shopping
[Shopping], in to the COVARIATES(S box.)

5.

Select ENTER for METHOD (default option)

6.

Click OK.

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