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PowerPoint Lecture Slides

Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,


Florence-Darlington Technical College

C H AP T E R

The Human Body:


An Orientation

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The Human BodyAn Orientation


Anatomy
Study of the structure and shape of the body
and its parts
Physiology
Study of how the body and its parts work or
function

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AnatomyLevels of Study
Gross anatomy
Large structures
Easily observable

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Mouth (oral cavity)


Tongue

Parotid gland
Sublingual gland
Submandibular
gland

Salivary glands

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)

Liver
Gallbladder

Small intestine

Anus
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Duodenum
Jejunum
lleum

Transverse
colon
Descending
colon
Ascending
colon
Cecum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anal canal

Large intestine

Figure 14.1

AnatomyLevels of Study
Microscopic anatomy
Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope

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Gastric pits

Gastric pit

Pyloric
sphincter

Surface
epithelium

Mucous
neck cells
Gastric gland

Parietal cells

Gastric
glands
Chief cells

(c)
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Figure 14.4c

Pepsinogen

HCl

Pepsin

Parietal cells

Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
cell
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(d)

Figure 14.4d

Molecules

Smooth muscle cell


2 Cellular level
Cells are made
up of molecules.

Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.

3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.

Smooth
muscle
tissue

Blood
vessels
Heart

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.

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Blood
vessel
(organ)

Cardio
vascular
system

5 Organ system level


Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.

6 Organismal level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.

Figure 1.1

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Figure 1.1, step 1

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Figure 1.1, step 2

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Figure 1.1, step 3

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Figure 1.1, step 4

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Figure 1.1, step 5

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Figure 1.1, step 6

Organ System Overview


Integumentary
Forms the external body covering
Protects deeper tissue from injury
Helps regulate body temperature
Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

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Skin

(a) Integumentary System


Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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Figure 1.2a

Organ System Overview


Skeletal
Protects and supports body organs
Provides muscle attachment for movement
Site of blood cell formation
Stores minerals

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Cartilages

Joint
Bones

(b) Skeletal System

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Protects and supports body


organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.

Figure 1.2b

Organ System Overview


Muscular
Produces movement
Maintains posture
Produces heat

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Skeletal
muscles

(c) Muscular System

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Allows manipulation of the


environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.

Figure 1.2c

Organ System Overview


Nervous
Fast-acting control system
Responds to internal and external change
Activates muscles and glands

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Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves

(d) Nervous System


Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
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Figure 1.2d

Organ System Overview


Endocrine
Secretes regulatory hormones
Growth
Reproduction
Metabolism

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Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)

(e) Endocrine System


Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
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Figure 1.2e

Organ System Overview


Cardiovascular
Transports materials in body via blood
pumped by heart
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nutrients
Wastes

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Heart

Blood
vessels

(f) Cardiovascular System

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Blood vessels transport blood,


which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.;
the heart pumps blood.

Figure 1.2f

Organ System Overview


Lymphatic
Returns fluids to blood vessels
Cleanses the blood
Involved in immunity

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Thoracic
duct

Lymph
nodes

Lymphatic
vessels

(g) Lymphatic System


Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
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Figure 1.2g

Organ System Overview


Respiratory
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
Removes carbon dioxide

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Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Left lung

(h) Respiratory System


Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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Figure 1.2h

Organ System Overview


Digestive
Breaks down food
Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
Eliminates indigestible material as feces

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Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus

(i) Digestive System

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Breaks food down into


absorbable units that enter the
blood for distribution to body
cells; indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.

Figure 1.2i

Organ System Overview


Urinary
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Maintains acid-base balance
Regulates water and electrolytes

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Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder

Urethra

(j) Urinary System

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Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.

Figure 1.2j

Organ System Overview


Reproductive
Produces offspring
Testes produce sperm and male hormone
Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones

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Seminal
vesicles

Prostate
gland

Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus

Penis

Vas
deferens
Vagina

Testis
Scrotum

(k) Male Reproductive System

(l) Female Reproductive System

Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring.


Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in
delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as
sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of
female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn.
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Figure 1.2kl

Necessary Life Functions


Maintain boundaries
Movement
Locomotion
Movement of substances
Responsiveness
Ability to sense changes and react
Digestion
Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
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Necessary Life Functions


Metabolismchemical reactions within the body
Break down complex molecules into smaller
ones
Build larger molecules from smaller ones
Produces energy
Regulated by hormones
Excretion
Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
Wastes may be removed in urine or feces
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Necessary Life Functions


Reproduction
Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
Produces future generation
Growth
Increases cell size and number of cells

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Survival Needs
Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building
Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
Oxygen
Required for chemical reactions

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Survival Needs
Water
60 to 80 percent of body weight
Most abundant chemical in the human body
Provides for metabolic reaction
Stable body temperature
37C (98F)
Atmospheric pressure
Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and eliminates
carbon dioxide

Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Food

O2

CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs

Blood

Heart
Nutrients

CO2
O2

Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogencontaining wastes
and excess ions

Interstitial fluid

Nutrients and wastes pass


between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Feces
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Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment

Urine

Figure 1.3

Homeostasis
Homeostasismaintenance of a stable
internal environment
A dynamic state of equilibrium
Necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
Homeostatic imbalance
A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in
disease

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3 Input: Information

sent along afferent


pathway to control
center.
Receptor
detects change.
2

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

Receptor

4 Output: Information

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

sent along efferent


pathway to effector.

Efferent
pathway

Effector
5 Response

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4, step 1

Receptor
detects change.
2

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

Receptor

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4, step 2

3 Input: Information

sent along afferent


pathway to control
center.
Receptor
detects change.
2

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

Receptor

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4, step 3

3 Input: Information

sent along afferent


pathway to control
center.
Receptor
detects change.
2

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

Receptor

4 Output: Information

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

sent along efferent


pathway to effector.

Efferent
pathway

Effector

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4, step 4

3 Input: Information

sent along afferent


pathway to control
center.
Receptor
detects change.
2

1 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

Receptor

4 Output: Information

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

sent along efferent


pathway to effector.

Efferent
pathway

Effector
5 Response

IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)

of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.

IMB
ALA
NC
E

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Figure 1.4, step 5

Maintaining Homeostasis
The body communicates through neural and
hormonal control systems
Receptor
Responds to changes in the environment
(stimuli)
Sends information to control center

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Maintaining Homeostasis
Control center
Determines set point
Analyzes information
Determines appropriate response
Effector
Provides a means for response to the
stimulus

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Feedback Mechanisms
Negative feedback
Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
Works like a household thermostat

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Feedback Mechanisms
Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
In the body this only occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

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The Language of Anatomy


Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
Exact terms are used for
Position
Direction
Regions
Structures

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Regional Terms
Anterior body landmarks

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Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary

Upper limb
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)

Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)

Manus (hand)
Digital

Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar

Pubic (genital)

Crural (leg)
KEY:

Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)

Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)

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Digital
(a) Anterior/Ventral

Figure 1.5a

Regional Terms
Posterior body landmarks

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Cephalic
Occipital (back
of head)

Upper limb
Acromial

Cervical

Brachial (arm)
Olecranal

Back (dorsal)
Scapular

Antebrachial
(forearm)

Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral

Manus (hand)
Digital

Gluteal

Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular

KEY:
Thorax

Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal

Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)

Plantar
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(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.5b

Directional Terms
Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the
head end or upper part of a structure or the
body; above
Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a structure or the
body; below

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Table 1.1

Directional Terms
Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of
the body; in front of
Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside
of the body; behind

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Table 1.1

Directional Terms
Medial: toward or at the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
Lateral: away from the midline of the body;
on the outer side of
Intermediate: between a more medial and a
more lateral structure

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Table 1.1

Directional Terms
Proximal: close to the origin of the body
part or point of attachment to a limb to the
body trunk
Distal: farther from the origin of a body part
or the point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk

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Table 1.1

Directional Terms
Superficial: toward or at the body surface
Deep: away from the body surface; more
internal

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Table 1.1

Body Planes and Sections


A sagittal section divides the body (or organ)
into left and right parts.
A median, or midsagittal, section divides the
body (or organ) into equal left and right parts.
A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body
(or organ) into anterior and posterior parts.
A transverse, or cross, section divides the
body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.

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(a) Median (midsagittal)


Vertebral
column

Rectum
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Intestines

(b) Frontal (coronal) plane


Right
lung Heart

Liver

Left
lung

Stomach Spleen

(c) Transverse plane

Liver Aorta

Spinal
Spleen
cord

Subcutaneous Stomach
fat layer

Figure 1.6

Body Cavities
Dorsal body cavity
Cranial cavity houses the brain
Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
Ventral body cavity
Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and
others
Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive
system and most urinary system organs

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Cranial
cavity

Thoracic
cavity

Spinal
cavity

Abdominal
cavity

Pelvic
cavity

Abdominopelvic
cavity

Diaphragm

KEY:
Dorsal body cavity
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Ventral body cavity

Figure 1.7

Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)

Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)

Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)

Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)

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Figure 1.8

Diaphragm
Stomach

Liver
Right
Left
hypohypoEpigastric
chondriac
chondriac
region
region
region
Right
lumbar
region

Umbilical
region

Left
lumbar
region

Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac


(inguinal)
(pubic)
(inguinal)
region
region
region

Gallbladder
Ascending
colon of large
intestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes

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Transverse
colon of large
intestine
Descending
colon of large
intestine
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary
bladder

(b) Anterior view of the nine regions


showing the superficial organs

Figure 1.9a-b

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