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FOREST ECOLOGY

Conservation is a state of
harmony between men and land.
A Sand County Almanac
Aldo Leopold - 1949

WHAT IS A FOREST?

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Only trees? A community? An ecosystem?

Includes animals? Fish? Streams & lakes? Houses?
How big of an area?
Regeneration areas? Plantations? Christmas tree farm?
Ecological processes like nutrient or energy cycling?

That portion of a geographically large area dominated by

trees. As an ecosystem, it is meant to include all plants and
sometimes the animals dependent upon the trees and plants.
Smaller area of largely homogenous tree compositions are
called stands.

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FOREST ECOLOGY BASICS

COMPOSITION
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION

COMPOSITION

Genetic Diversity - Gene Pools

Species, Number of Species &
Species Abundance
Populations of Animals & Plants
Species Associations & Community
Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity

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STRUCTURE

Vertical & Horizontal

Spatial Heterogeneity & Density
Edge Effect
Islands & Fragmentation
Dead Trees & Snags
Micro-Environments
Appearance

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VERTICAL STRUCTURE
Vertical structure refers to the ladder-like
arrangement in a forest.

Co-Dominant

Dominant

Intermediate

Shrubs

Co-Dominant
Intermediate

Suppressed
Ground Cover

Adapted from Baughman, et al., 1993. Woodland Stewardship. P. 17.

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HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE
Stand density and crown cover within timber stands
and across the landscape is horizontal structure.

40%

80%

100%

Adapted from Baughman, et al., 1993. Woodland Stewardship. P. 20.

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EDGES, SNAGS, AND

FRAGMENTATION

Edge Effect

Forest Fragmentation

Large Snags
Green. 1995. Birds and Forests. P.55. UM-Cartography Lab.

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FUNCTION

Energy Capture & Trophics

Weathering
Mineral & Nutrient Cycling
Water Movement
Temperature & Humidity
Succession & Disturbance

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ENERGY CAPTURE

Energy Capture

10%

Trophic Levels

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CYCLING
Ecosystem

Gains

Losses

Nutrient, Mineral, and Water Cycling

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SUCCESSION

Grasses
& Forbs

Shrubs &
Saplings

Young
Forest

Mature Old
Forest Forest

Wisconsin DNR, 1995. Wisconsins Biodiversity as a Management Issue. P. 22.

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DISTURBANCE

Forested ecosystems are dependent upon disturbance for

renewal and to provide biological diversity. The plants and
animals in a forest dont know whether the disturbance is
caused by natural events or human-caused events.
Natural Events

Human-Caused Events

Fire
Wind
Animals
Flooding
Diseases/Insects

Fire
Harvest
Pollution
Development
Exotic Introductions

FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE

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Woodland wildlife is managed by manipulating the forest

to provide the kind and variety of habitat needed.
Forestry practices in the U.P. have many effects:
encourages plant diversity
encourages forest regeneration
causes multiple age distributions
provides edge
creates horizontal and vertical structure
adds more micro-environments
accelerates system metabolism & nutrient cycling

IDEAS FOR YOUR LAND

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In most parts of the country, forest is a small part of the

landscape. In the U.P., forest is the dominant cover type.
This causes resource managers to rearrange priorities for
habitat management that differ from the general opinion.
1. Modify timber harvests (time & space).
2. Leave large snags & large fallen logs.
3. Create future tree cavities.
4. Construct brush piles.
5. Mix areas of varying vertical structure.
6. Create small openings.