Embedded generators

Chapter 4: Generator
CAPTA

2016.11.01
Le Dinh Vuong
Changwon National University

Changwon National University

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Content

4.0. Overview of generator in embedded system

4.1. Synchronous generator
4.1.1. Steady operation
4.1.2. Excitation system
4.2. Induction generator

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4.0 Overview of generator

Embedded generation plant mainly uses conventional electrical machines or power electronic convert
er circuits. However, compared to stand-alone generators or even large central power stator units, there ar
e significant differences in the wat that embedded generators are applied and controlled and some aspect
s of their behavior assume increased importance due to their position in the power system or the type of p
rime mover used. In particular, the presence of rotating machines in the distribution network can significa
ntly alter the flow of fault currents and so needs careful attention.
All large central generators and most stand-alone schemes use synchronous generators for their high
efficiency and independent control of real and reactive power.

However, some embedded generation

plant uses induction generators and there is increasing use of power electronic interface.
Induction machines are, of course, widespread on the power system as induction motors but are not
widely used as generators. Induction generators do, however, have the significant benefit of providing larg
e damping torques in the prime mover drive train and so are always used in the fix speed wind turbines.
Power electronics interfaces are used to connect energy sources which produce DC (PV, fuel cell, etc)
but also allow rotating prime movers to operate at variable speed.

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4.1 Synchronous generator

Synchronous generator consists of an armature winding located on the stator which is connected to
the three phases of the network and a field winding on the rotor which is fed from a source of direct curre
nt. the mmf rotating at a speed proportional to the supply frequency (synchronous generator)
Speed of rotation can be reduced at the design stage by increasing the bomber of pole pairs of the g
enerators as shown in eqn. (4.1).
N= f x 60/p

N is speed of rotation in rpm

f is the system frequency
p is number of pole pairs
The stator or armature windings are similar to those found on induction machines but there are num
ber of different rotor arrangements.

Large steam turbine generator sets use turbo-alternators consisting of a cylindrical rotor with a single D
C winding to give one pair of poles and hence maximum rotational speed (3000 rpm on 50 Hz system)

Hydro-generators, but often operate at lower speeds and then use multiple-pole generators with a sali
ent-pole generators.
Exceptionally the field winding may be replaced by permanent magnets but this is not commonly fou

nd in large generators as, although higher efficiencies can be achieved, direct control of the rotor magneti

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4.1 Synchronous generator

In a synchronous generator, the rotor rotates at constant speed and the rotor angle is a function of t
he applied torque. Hence the connection of the generator to the network is represented by a spring.
In induction generator, the rotor rotates at a slip speed, slightly faster than the synchronous magneti
c field of the stator, and so the rotor speed is a function of the torque applied to the shaft. Hence the con
nection to the network is represented by a rotational damper.

Figure 4.2. Simple mechanical analogues of

generators.

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
To investigate how a synchronous generator will be behave on the power system a simple model is require
d.
Assumption that: (i) the magnetic circuits are unsaturated, (ii) the air-gap is uniform and any effects of sali
ency are ignored, (iii) the air-gap flux is sinusoidal, and (iv) the stator resistance is negligible.

: the terminal voltage

f : the internal voltage
XS : synchronous reactance
For a small embedded generator the terminal voltage is usually helod almost constant by the networ
k and so phasor diagrams my be drawn (Fig. 4.4) t illustrate the operation of a synchronous generator on

Vinfinite
E f busbar)
j I XS
a fix voltage (or

Figure 4.4. Phasor diagrams of a round rotor

synchronous generator connected to a voltage V

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
The power factor of the power delivered to the network is simply by cos , while the rotor angle (the angle
by which rotor is in advance of the stator field) is given by
The active and reactive power delivered are simply

P = (EfV/Xs) sin

(4.3)

Q = (EfV/Xs) cos V2/Xs

(4.4)

In normal operation, the rotor angle is usually less than 30o and so the cosine term of eqn. 4.4 rem

ains fairly constant increasing the torque increasing rotor angle increasing active power exported
to the network.
While, increasing the field current increasing magnitude of f increasing reactive power exported
to the network.
Figure 4.4. Phasor diagrams of a round rotor
synchronous generator connected to a voltage V

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
a) Under-excited
f

|<
a leading power factor importing reactive power

b) Over-excited
f

|>
a lagging power factor exporting reactive power
As motor point of view, the an under-excited motor has a lagging power factor and over-excited mo

tor has a leading power factor(inverse compared to the generator)

Figure 4.4. Phasor diagrams of a round rotor

synchronous generator connected to a voltage V

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
The operating chart of a synchronous generator is formed directly from the phasor diagram of Fig. 4.
4 which is simply scaled by multiplying by V/X s as in Fig. 4.5. The locus of the new phasor VI then describes
the operation of power available from the prime mover. Various limits which form the boundaries of the o
perating region are applied to account for: (i) maximum power available from the prime mover, (ii) maxim
um current rating of the stator, (iii) maximum excitation, (iv) minimum excitation for stability and/or stator
end winding heating.
The operating chart illustrates that a synchronous generator connected to an infinite busbar of fixed
voltage and frequency has

Figure 4.5. Operating chart of a round rotor

synchronous generator connected to an infinite
busbar

essentially independent control over real and reactive power

Real power is varied by adjusting the torque on the generator shaft (the rotor angle)
Reactive power is adjusted by varying the field current (magnitude of f )

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
Fig. 4.6 shows a notional 5 MW synchronous embedded generator driven by a small steam turbine. If
the short-circuit level at the point of connection (C) is, say, 100 MVA, with an X/R ratio of, say, 10 then the
total source impedance on a 100 MVA base will be approximately:
Z=0.1 + j1.0
and with the realistic value of Xs of 1.5 per unit on rating, then, again on a 100 MVA base Xs = 30 j
|Xs| >> |Z| synchronous generator will have a very small effect on the network voltage. As small gener
ator cannot affect the frequency of the large interconnected power system the embedded generator ca
n be considered to be connected directly to the infinite busbar.

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
The conventional method of controlling the output power of a generating unit is to set up the gover
nor on a droop characteristic as in Fig. 4.7 for frequency control. A similar characteristic can be set up for v
oltage control as in Fig. 4.8
These conventional control schemes may not be appropriate for small embedded synchronous gener
ators which may wish to operate at a fixed power output, or fixed exchange with the network, irrespective
of system frequency. Similarly operation with no reactive power exchange with the network may be desira
ble to minimize reactive power charges.

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
If the generators are operated on the simple droop characteristic illustrated in Fig. 4.7, 4.8 then both
real and reactive power outputs of generator will change constantly with network conditions, as network v
oltage and frequency.
Therefore, for many relatively small embedded generators on strong network, control is based on rea
l and reactive power rather than on freq. and voltage.

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4.1 Synchronous generator

4.1.1. Steady-state operation
The principle method of control is that, for real power control, the measure (MW) values is compared to a
set point and then error signal fed to the governor which, in turn, controls the steam supply to the turbine.
In a similar manner the generator excitation is controlled to either an MVAr or cos setting. The mea
sure (MVAr) value is compared to a set point and the error passed to the AVR and exciter. The exciter contr
ols the field current and hence the reactive power output.
It may be noted that the control scheme shown in Fig. 4.6 pays no attention to the condition on the
power system. The real power output is controlled to a set point irrespective of the frequ. of the system w
hile the reactive power is controlled to a particular MVAr value or power factor irrespective of network volt
age.

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Conclusion
1. Basic calculation for coil gun
2. Modelling of coil gun
Electrical circuit
Multiphysics analysis
3. Full geometry design of lab-scale coil gun
Next step
4. Calculation parameters of switches, crow bar
5. Simulation three-stages
6. Calculation on/off time of 3 stages

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