Small Scale Civil Engineering System

Main small civil engg

techniques used in Nepal

Retaining walls:
Revetment walls
Check dams
Surface drains
Sub-surface drains
Cascades
Stone pitching
Wire bolster cylinders
Other civil engg techniques

Retaining walls
Application :

Position :
Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

To support hill side slope or

slope segments from the valley
side
at mid and lower slope
25 years +
Any slope having slope
instability problems with slip
plane at >50 cms

Retaining walls
Purpose / Function:
Retaining embankment and
surcharge
Supporting toe of slope
Supporting cut slope
Preventing small-scale shallow
collapse
Prevent erosion or collapse at toe of
large scale slope failure
Help stabilize landslides
Supporting other slope protection

Retaining walls

Limitations:
Cannot stabilize large landslide
Backfilling is not proper

Retaining wall

Typical Design of Retaining Walls

Typical Design of Breast Walls

Dry Masonry Wall

Dry Masonry Wall

Composite Masonry Wall

Composite Masonry Wall

Composite Masonry Wall

Gabion Wall

Gabion Wall

Gabion Wall

Gabion Wall

Cement Masonry Wall

Cement Masonry Wall

Cement Masonry Wall

Cement Masonry Wall

Revetment
Application :

Position :
Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

Debris >50 slope (rare

chance)
Cut slopes >50 slope
Spoil at angle of repose
Usually at toe
25 years +
Stable cut slope which would
otherwise destabilise by the
seepage
Gives only protection and not
support

Gabion Revetments

Masonry Revetments

Check dam
Application :

Position :
Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

Any loose or active gully

Any rill that threatens to
enlarge
Gullies
Mid & down slope
25 years +
Good foundation
Need to be well keyed

Check dam

Check dam

Check dam

Check dam

Check dam

Check dam:
Erosion control
small low dam
structure;
constructed
across a gully
or a channel or
any other
water course

Functions

Prevents channel vertical and lateral

erosion
Conveys the runoff safely
Decreases the velocity of water flow
Reduces the gradient of a gully
Supports the unstable side slopes
Raises gully / stream bed level
Traps the silt from going downstream.
Promotes water percolation

Main Components of Check Dam

Spillwa
y
section
Main Body
Wing
Min 50 cm
bank
foundation

Foundation

TYPES OF CHECKDAMS
Brushwood
Loose

stone
Boulders
Gabion
Masonry/Concrete

Brushwood Check dams

Made of
wooden poles
and brush,
Low cost
Least
permanent of
all types,

Loose stone Check dams

Made of loose
stones or rocks
Stability and
strength
depends on the
size of rocks
and quality of
the construction
Commonly used,
where stones

Boulder Check dams

Made of big
boulders or rocks,
Stability and
strength depend
on the size of the
boulders or rocks
and quality of the
construction
Commonly used,
where boulders or
rocks are

Gabion Check dams

Made with
Gabion Boxes
filled with
stones,
Flexible
Preferred
where big
boulders are
not available
Recommended
to make first
check dam to

Masonry/Concrete Check
dams
Made of
cement
masonry or
concrete
Commonly
used to
protect
important
infrastructure
s such as

Type

Advantages

Disadvantages

Brushwood

Simple, Low cost, Local

material
Stronger with time

Takes long time to established

Loose
stone

Simple, Low Cost and

Local material

Weak if not made properly,

and do not use sizeable stones

Boulder Simple, Low cost

Use locally materials
If properly made almost
like a permanent structure
and durable

Difficult to Transport big

rocks
Large voids may create water
jets causing erosion

Gabion

Costlier
Gabion external material
Skilled labor

Flexible and permeable

Suitable where land mass
is moving

Masonr Permanent and solid

Have aesthetic look
y

Costly and external material

Need engineering design, and
skilled labor

DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Site Selection:
Wide to limit specific runoff and the scour
depth
0.5 m Free board in the spillway to
protect side foundation
Straight and firm section of gully/stream
bank
Not to be made on the curve, confluence
and just below gully junctions
Stable and Good foundation and side
foundation
Site is also restricted by the height of the
structure

Site selection

Compensation gradient: non-erosive velocity of

flow.
Generally: - 3 to 5 per cent slope.
Target

Compensation gradient

Clinometer
Stick

Additional
Height
Rod

Height of
Checkdam

Checkdam

Spacing of Check dams /Site selection

Compensation gradient: non-erosive velocity of

flow.
Generally: - 3 to 5 per cent slope.
Check
dam

Compensation Gradient
Check
dam

Horizontal distance between successive

check dams:

d = h * 100/ (So- Se),

where,
d = spacing between two successive
check dams (horizontal distance),
h = height of the check dam up to the
notch,
So= existing slope of bed in %,
Se= stabilizing slope of bed in%.
Example:Given:
h = 2 m.,

So = 15 %,

Se = 5 %,

d = h* 100/ (So Se) = 2 * 100 /(15

5) = 20 m

Number of Check dams:

N.O.C.D. = (a b)/ H,
Where,
a = Vertical distance between first and last check dam in
the given portion as per average gully channel
gradient
b = Se * d / 100 = the total vertical distance calculated
as per compensation gradient in the portion of gully
d = Horizontal distance between first and last check
dam in the portion
H = Average height of the check dams.

Example:Given:
a = 30 m, Se = 5 %, d = 200 m, b= Se * d /
100 = 10 m,
H = 2 m,
No. of check dams = ( a b)/H =( 30 10)/2 = 10

Foundation Depth
Considerations
Depth of foundation > 1.33 * Scour depth
Scour depth is not to be taken from the
present bed level, but from one to be
expected in the future after siltation of the
lower check dam; and after the
establishment of new bed gradient due to
the reduced bed level (gradient) after the
erosion control
Minimum of 1.0 m foundation as a rule of
thumb

Min 50 cm
bank
foundation
Min 1.0 m sole foundation

Min 30
cm step
length

Scour Depth

When the velocity is retarded silt is

dropped
When the velocity is increased, silt is
picked up
Scour is worse when the flow is falling
Depends more on the water depth than
on the gradient
Scouring is deeper at the obstructions
and at bends than normal

h = fall
height of
check dam

hf =
height of
foundation
ls = scour
hole length

scourab
hs =
le
scour
depth
water
depth

Type of
Check
dam

General Design Specification

Maximum
Effective
Height

Minimum
Foundation
Depth

Thickness of
Dam at
Spillway
Level

Slope of the Slope of

Downstream the
Upstrea
m

Thickness
of the Base
of the Dam

Brush
wood

1 m from
about 0.75- 1
ground level
m

Loose
stone

1.0 m

0.5 m

0.5 0.7 m

20 %

Vertical

Calculated
accordingly

Boulder

2.0 m

Half of
effective
height

Preferably
1.0 m

30 %

Vertical

Calculated
accordingly

Gabion

May vary
(not more
than 5.0 m)

Half of
effective
height

> 1m

20 %,
stepped or
vertical

Stepped
or
vertical

Calculated
accordingly

Masonry

May vary
(recommend
ed not more
than 8.0 m)

At least 1 m
+ 0.2 m RCC
layer to a
durable
layer

0.4 m to 0.9
m
(Calculated
accordingly)

20 % sloped

Vertical

Calculated
accordingly

Remarks

Use of the above mentioned dimension does not need stability test against
overturning, collapsing and sliding. However, size of the spillway need to be
computed according to the maximum discharge of the gully watershed area.

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS

(GCS)

Proper site selection and design

Construct check dams along with other
treatments ( like plantation, diversion channel,
retaining walls, etc.)
Choose the best construction materials
available nearby
Use big and well shaped hard stones in loose
stone / boulder check dam
Use the biggest and hardest stones for the
spillway section and the foundations.
The spillway section must take the peak runoff
flow.
Structure is supplemented by planting of
suitable species with a dense and wide spread

GCS contd

Provide sidewalls to direct the flow to the

weir
The height of the wing walls must level with
the top of the check dam.
The foundation must be firmly based in the
sub-soil and in the banks.
Prevent water flow by-passing the check
dam sides by providing guide walls or wing
walls.
Maintenance is as important as the
construction itself.

Specific Construction
Specification
Brushwood
Check dams:
Clear and mark the site

Dig a trench of about 15 cm deep

across the gully
Drive wooden poles (Size : 1.0 to 1.5
m length x 3 to 12 cm. ) to a depth
of about 1/3 to of its length
(Spacing of the poles:30 -50 cm)
Height of the poles are maintained to
form a notch to accommodate the
maximum flow
Flexible branches of tree and shrub
are woven in between poles; and the
ends should enter at least 30 cm into
the sides of the gully
Fill the back of the brushwood check
dam with soil.
A brushwood apron of 1.5 to 2 times
the height of check dam to protect

Loose stone/ Boulder Check dams

Clear the site

Mark the line of
construction
The sides of the gully are
cut to a slope of 1:1; or in
steps.
Wing wall with
appropriate foundations
(> 0.5m)
The height of the wing
wall must be equal to the
depth of the spillway.
The foundation of the dam
has to be more than the
length of the spillway.
Foundation depth must be

The large stones are

placed in the bottom of
the dam and stones of
about 50 cm x 30 cm
are used throughout
the body of the check
dam.
Large flat stones are
used on the spillway
and apron
Concrete crown in the
notch
On the upstream side,
the dam has to get an
earth fill for greater
strength.
Structure is

Gabion Check dams:

Depth of the foundation
is equal to half of the
effective height
The foundation of the
dam has to be more than
the length of the
spillway.
Wing wall with
appropriate foundations
The structure and wing
wall should enter at least
0.5 m into the side of the
gully
The foundation of the
wings should be more
than 0.5 meters.
The space between the
dam and wing walls
should be filled with soil.
The height of the wing

Large flat stones should

be put along the sides of
the gabion boxes, while
smaller are filled in the
middle.
Use stones bigger than
Do
notsize
expose gabions to flowing or falling
mesh
water especially if there is a bed load.
Protect the spillway and steps in the front part
of the dams by a layer of concrete
Apron
The back of the check dams must be filled with
soil
Structure is supplemented by planting of
suitable species
The gabions must be well and firmly tied first
to close and then tied with other gabion boxes
The wings should enter at least one meter into

Masonry/Concrete check
dams:
Not to construct on moving
mass
Build on stable points such
as solid rock to hold debris
and material as well as to
stop the movement of soil
blocks
If there is no solid layer,
the foundation must be
dug at least one m deep,
and a reinforced, concrete
layer at least 20 cm thick
must be constructed.
The foundation is longer
than the spillway.
Wing wall with appropriate

An aqueduct (diameter 20
to 50 cm) must be built on
ground level and drainage
holes (diameter of each
hole at least 10 cm)
The gradient of the
aqueduct and drainage
holes is five percent.
The upstream face of the
dam is vertical, whereas its
downstream face
inclination is 20 percent
(1:1/5 ratio).
The stones must be piled
behind the mouth of the
aqueduct.
Space behind the dam
should be filled to the
spillway with soil
Apron
A counter-dam should be

Materials
Brushwood

Loose /
Boulder
Sprouting poles of Flat stones
8 to 12 cm
for loose
diameter and 150 stone, and
to 200 cm long.
big boulder
for boulder
Branches of
check
rooting plants of
different species 6 dams
to 18 months old
of 2 to 4 cm
diameter and
more than 100 cm
long.
Galvanized wire
for binding.

Gabion

Masonry

Gabion
box and
stones

Portland
cement,
sand,
stones,
gravels,
iron rods,
water
Masons
tools

MAINTENANCE AND PRECAUTIONS

General Maintenance:
Maintenance is very important for the stability
and longevity and effective performances of
the structure.
Structures which are not maintained can have
disastrous consequences for the people staying
downstream by possible destruction due to the
floods.
Maintenance for structural measures must be
continued for at least two years after the
treatment year.

Normally maintenance consists of the following

aspects:

i) Inspections:
Treated areas must be inspected at least once a year.

A check up must be done before and after the

monsoon.
Basically all structures, watercourse (bed and bank
erosion, obstacles etc.) and slope protection must be
checked.
ii) Care of plantations and of watercourses:
Drainage: Remove weeds, Clean and repair ditches

Slopes:
Grass cutting or restoration of grass/plant cover
Check rills, gullies and slides

Water courses:
Clean the water courses from deposits, woods,

iii) Repair works:

Check dams have to be checked for the conditions

of the spillway section, bed and bank foundations,
scouring damage above and below the structure ,
condition of the apron, damages to any structural
parts due to rotting, hitting , abrasion etc.

With these structures, every damaged part has to

be changed or patched up. Scouring damage must
be repaired by setting a better protection (big
stones, gabions, masonry etc.).

Rotting check dams (brushwood) be exchanged by

removing the old one or constructing a new one in
front of the old one.

Out washing of brushwood check dams must be

restored and dead plants replaced.

iv) Supplementary works: Normally it may

not be possible to be fully successful at
the first attempt for gully stabilization,
especially in new constructions.

Some new structures may be necessary

for bank protection. Hence, in some
cases, supplementary structures may be
needed, which should be constructed.

Specific Maintenance:
1

Brushwood check dams:

Inspect the gully, and any scouring of the

poles should be repaired before it gets
worse.
Close the openings, if any, in the jafri
(brush).

Specific Maintenance Continued:

2 Loose stone/ Boulder check dams:
Check dam can collapse if:
even one stone of the spillway section is
washed out,
the foundation of the check dam is scoured,
or
the water flows from the side of foundation of
the checkdam.
Therefore, continuous monitoring of these
incidences is essential.
If any damage is seen, maintenance and
further control measures should be
immediately carried out.
Also, remove boulders, trees, bushes, and
other flow restrictions, if any are lying on the

Gabion check dams:

Check dam can collapse if:

the spillway section is washed out,
the foundation of the check dam is scoured.
the water flows from the side of foundation of
the check dam .
Check, if the gabions are intact or not. Any
loose or broken wire must be repaired in time.
Therefore, continuous monitoring of these
incidences is essential.
If any damage is seen, maintenance and
further control measures should be
immediately carried out.
Remove boulders, trees, bushes, and other flow
restrictions, if any are lying on the flow path;
that would result in the bank cutting or
overtopping of the channel.

Masonry/concrete check dams

Check dam can collapse if:

the spillway section is washed out,
the foundation of the check dam is scoured or
settles down,
The water flows from the side of foundation of
the check dam
Therefore, continuous monitoring of these
incidences is essential. If any damage is seen,
maintenance and further control measures
should be immediately carried out.

Precautions:
Brushwood check dams:
Avoid slitting of the stakes by placing a piece
of strong wood on the top of the stake when it
is being driven.
After the structure is built, tramp earth
solidly behind and around it to prevent
cracking.
The water must go over the structures and
not go around them.
The waterways should not be used such as
Loose stone/ Boulder check dams :
paths.
Strength of the check dam depends on the
quality of the construction, i.e., laying of the
stones in the structure, bonding between the
stones within the structure.
Big stone needs to be placed at the spillway
and at the foundation.

Gabion:
Any fall of the stone from the spillway to the
structure easily cut the gabion wire.
Therefore, the gabion wire of the foundation
must be protected from the falling debris by
covering with stone.
Gabion box must be properly sealed. Any
opening in the gabion box easily washes out
the stones.
Masonry/concrete check dams
The water flows from the side of foundation of
the check dam can collapse or cause the
damage to the check dam.
Remove boulders, trees, bushes, and other
flow restrictions, if any are lying on the flow
path, that would result in the bank cutting or
overtopping of the channel so as to reduce
the damage and protect the check dams.

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD
1

Brushwood:

During dormant season if the site is moist; just

before monsoon, if the site is dry.
Any time if non-sprouting species are used.

2. Loose stone/Boulder:

Any time of the year when it is convenient,

however dry period is preferable.

3 Gabion:

Any time of the year when it is convenient,

however dry period is preferable.

Masonry/concrete:

Any time of the year when it is convenient,

however dry period is preferable.

CAUSES OF FAILURES

Human Factors and Natural factors:

Human Factors:
Inadequate or limited design
considerations such as:

Hydrological consideration
Hydraulic consideration
Structural consideration
Incorrect spacing
Incorrect effective heights
Inadequate spill way section
Less or no foundation depth
No provision or inadequate keying of
foundation or sides of check dams
No provision of wing walls / Apron

Faulty or inadequate design process

followed, missing of steps or specifications
not followed,

Low Grade of construction because of

Low knowledge / Mere negligence

Experience / Skill
Economy

No or inadequate maintenance activities;

No or very limited monitoring
Watershed degradation

Natural Factors:

Unexpected flow condition because of Cloudburst

or high rainfall more than design consideration
Natural disaster or phenomenon like Earthquake,
Tectonic movement beyond human control

Check dam Failure Examples

Flow

Weak Side
Foundation

No Spillway

Foundation
Exposure

Check dam Failure Examples

No complete
Check dam

No complete
Check dam

PRACTICAL CASES OF CHECK DAM

CONSTRUCTIONS

Gully head plugging with a

gabion Check dam

Series of Brushwood
check dams

Series of Gabion check dams in Khadichaur

Landslide Area

Series of Gabion check

dams in Dahachowk

Gabion check dams with

side walls in a torrent

Series of gabion check dams conveying water flow from

upstream to down stream in Lankuridanda, Dolakha

An established masonry check dam in Dakshin

kali

Masonry Check dam in Mugling

Narayangarh Roadside Torrent

Defective Check Dams :

Defective Check Dams :

Surface drains
Application :

On slope surface

Position :
Life span

Depends on type of surface

drains provided

Site
requirement

Any site <35

Gabion or concrete drains can
be used on slopes up to 45,
cascade drains can be used in
slopes >45

Limitation

Sub-surface drains
Application :
Position :
Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

On slopes having shallow gd

water table
Depends on type of subsurface drains provided
Any site <35
Slopes dominated by boulders

Surface & shallow sub-surface

drains
GENERAL LAYOUT OF SURFACE & SUB- SURFACE DRAINS.
SURFACE DRAIN (SD)
with Sub-surface Drain

(D)
Drain
Branch

3000
750

750

1000

20cm H.D.P Pipe

Plastic Sheet

700

Wooden Peg 10x80 cm

1000

Gabion Mat. t = 30cm

Wooden Peg 10x80 cm

300

Gabion Mat. t = 30cm

Boulders

Main Drain

Pebbles

Plastic Sheet

15 cm Perforated H.D.P Pipe

500

Ground Sel

= 15 - 45 o
= 10 - 15m

500

TYPE MD -1

PLAN

TYPE BD-1

Scale = 1:50

NOT IN SCALE

Scale = 1:50

Note: Thickness of Plastic sheet shall be >= 20 gauge

and the colour of Plastic sheet shall be Black
Branch Drain

BRANCH DRAIN (BD)

with Sub-surface Drain
1500

500

Flat Boulders

1300

Geo-textile
800

1500

Boulders

300

Plastic sheet

300

500

1300

300

300

1000

750

300

1500

500

750

Pebbles

Plastic sheet
500

TYPE BD -1
Scale = 1:50

Plastic sheet
500

Main Drain

TYPE BD-1

Ground Sel (Gabion)

Scale = 1:50

(ISOMETRIC VIEW)
NOT IN SCALE

Surface drains
network

Sub-surface
drains

Cascade Drains

Stone pitching
Application :
Position :
Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

Erodible soil slope upto 35

degrees
River banks
Gully base & floor
25 years +

Damaged by debris & swift

water

Wire bolster cylinders

Application :

Position :
Life span
Site
requirement

Limitation

On long slopes between 35 to

50 to prevent scour or
gullying
at mid slope
25 years +
Well drained material for
contour bolsters
Poorly drained material for
herring bone bolsters
Can be undermined

Construction of
Wire bolster
cylinder

Slope cover
Application :

Permeable slope
Any slope

Position :

Gullies
Mid & down
slope
Depends on material used

Life span
Site
requirement
Limitation

Stakes can be driven

Good foundation
Need to be well keyed

Other Civil Engineering

Techniques

Wattle Fence
Application :

Cheap, easy to install

Position :

Top and Mid slope

Life span

1-2 seasons

Site
requirement
Limitation

Stakes can be driven

Weak, Undermining

Jute Nets (unbituminised)

Application :

Cheap, sandy soil >30 degrees

Position :

Mid slope

Life span

1 season

Site
requirement

Smooth plane slope,

Homogeneous materials
Very small amount of material
shrinks
Not on fine plastic soils
Not on cobble size soil
Cannot be used in rilling soil.
Weak, light in weight and
requires many pegs

Limitation

Jute Nets (bituminised)

Application :

Cheap, sandy soil >30 degrees

Position :

Top and Mid slope

Life span

5+ years

Site
requirement

Smooth plane slope,

Homogeneous materials
Very small amount of material
shrinks
Not on fine plastic soils
Not on cobble size soil
Cannot be used in rilling soil.

Limitation

Wire Netting
Application :

Hard rock slope

Position :

Up and Mid slope

Life span

20+ years

Site
requirement
Limitation

Expensive
Difficult to install
Not on soft rock

Wiremesh Netting

Wire Fence
Application :

>30 degree slope

Position :

Mid slope

Life span

10 to 20 years

Site
requirement
Limitation

Stakes can be driven

Expensive
Small amounts retained

Scour Depth Estimation

Normal Scour Depth: Schocklitchs Formula:

Scour Depth,
Ds = (4.75 * h0.2* q

0.57

) / dm

0.35

where,
Ds = Scour depth in meter below water level,
dm = Grain diameter in mm which divides bed
material in a way that 90 % is smaller than dm,
h = Water level difference in meter above and
below the check dam,
q = run off in cubic meters /meter width in the
spillway.
Breadth of Scour Hole: = 1.5 * Length of the
Notch
Length of Scour Hole: = 4 * (0.467 * q2/3) 1.5

*h

0.5

Example:
Scour Depth, Ds
Given: dm = 20 cm = 200 mm, h = 2 m,
q = 1.8 cumecs / meter,
DS = (4.75 * h 0.2* q 0.57) /dm 0.35
= (4.75 * 2 0.2* 1.8 0.57) / 200 0.35
= (4.75* 1.149*1.398) / 6.39 = 7.63/6.39
=1.19m.
Breadth of Scour Hole: = 1.5 * Length
of the Notch = 1.5 * 4 = 6 m.
Length of Scour Hole: = 4 * (0.467 *
q2/3)
* h 0.5
= 4 * (0.467 * 1.82/3)1.5 * 20.5 = 4 * 0.576 *

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CONSIDERATION
Safety is mostly endangered by scouring

Calculation of

Spillway size and shape

Foundation depth and

Determination dimensions of the

various components
Test against the strength and stability

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Check dams are designed for:

Safety against overturning;
Safety against sliding; and
Safety against the bearing pressure on
the foundation soil.
Same as retaining wall
For complicated design, consult other
relevant references or experts.