Motivation and Emotion Class Notes

Chapter 9
motivation and emotion
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objective Menu

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
How do psychologists define motivation, and what are the key elements of the early
instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation?
What are the characteristics of the three types of needs?
What are the key elements of the arousal and incentive approaches to motivation?
How do Maslows hierarchy of needs and self-determination theories explain
motivation?
What happens in the body to cause hunger, and how do social factors influence a
persons experience of hunger?
What are some biological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to obesity?
What are different types of eating disorders, how do they differ, and who are they
most likely to affect?
What are the three elements of emotion?
How do the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion differ?
What are the key elements in cognitive arousal theory, the facial feedback
hypothesis, and the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion?
What are the stages of the GTD method?

AP Learning Objectives
XIII. Motivation and Emotion
Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the
behavior of humans and other animals.
Compare and contrast motivational theories, including the strengths and
weaknesses of each.
Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs,
drives, and homeostasis.
Identify key contributors in the psychology of motivation and emotion.
Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems.
Describe how cultural influences shape emotional expression, including
variations in body language.
Compare and contrast major theories of emotion.

Warm Up
1. What needs cause the
runners to stop at the water
station?
2. What incentives might
the runners have for
participating in the race?
3. What external forces
may have influenced the
runners decision to enter
the race?
4. What emotions might the
runners be experiencing?
Motivation
LO 9.1 Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation
AP: Basic Motivational Concepts
Motivation: the process by which activities

are started, directed, and continued so that
physical or psychological needs or wants are
met
extrinsic motivation: a person performs an action
because it leads to an outcome that is separate
from or external to the person
intrinsic motivation: a person performs an action
because the act is fun, challenging, or satisfying
in an internal manner
Instinct Approaches to Motivation

LO Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation
AP: Compare Theories of Motivation
Instincts: the biologically determined and

innate patterns of behavior that exist in
both people and animals
Instinct approach: approach to motivation
that assumes people are governed by
instincts similar to those of animals

Theories Based on Needs and Drives


The Biological Underpinnings of Motivation
Need: a requirement of some material

(such as food or water) that is essential for
survival of the organism
Drive: a psychological tension and
physical arousal arising when there is a
need that motivates the organism to act in
order to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation


Drive-reduction theory: assumes behavior

arises from physiological needs that cause
internal drives to push the organism to
satisfy the need and reduce tension and
arousal

Need Drive Goal Action

feels hungry motivated to find food wants to sate hunger eat an
apple

Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation


Primary drives: involve needs of the body such as

hunger and thirst
Acquired (secondary) drives: learned through experience
or conditioning, such as the need for money or social
approval
Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a
steady state

Drive
Reduction
Theory
Clark Hull
people develop need for social approval because
they are fed and cared for by a smiling mother as
an infant conditioned and generalized
However, Harry Hawlows study with monkeys
prove there are many behaviors that cant be
explained through deprivation.

Three Types of Needs

LO 9.2 Three Types of Needs
Need for affiliation (nAff): the need for

friendly social interactions and relationships
with others
Need for power (nPow): the need to have
control or influence over others
Need for achievement (nAch): involves a
strong desire to succeed in attaining goals
not only realistic ones, but also challenging
ones
Three Types of Needs

LO 9.2 Three Types of Needs
Dweck (1999)
A persons view of self can affect his/her
perceptions of success and failure
People who believe intelligence is fixed demonstrate
an external locus of control and give up easily (it is
controlled by external forces)
People who believe intelligence is changeable tend
to show an internal locus of control and increase
their efforts when faced with challenges (it is
controlled by internal forces, you yourself controls
things).
Arousal Approach to Motivation

LO 9.3 Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation
Stimulus motive: a motive that appears to

be unlearned but causes an increase in
stimulation, such as curiosity
Arousal theory: theory of motivation in
which people are said to have an optimal
(best or ideal) level of tension that they
seek to maintain by increasing or
decreasing stimulation

Yerkes-Dodson law: law stating

performance is related to arousal;
moderate levels of arousal lead to better
performance than do levels of arousal that
are too low or too high
This effect varies with the difficulty of the task
easy tasks require a high-moderate level
more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level

Figure 9.2 Arousal and Performance

The optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy
tasks well if we are at a highmoderate level of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if we are at a low
moderate level (red).


Sensation seeker: one who needs more

arousal than the average person

Incentive Approaches to Motivation

Incentives: things that attract or lure people into action

Incentive approaches: theories of motivation in which
behavior is explained as a response to the external
stimulus and its rewarding properties

Incentives pull us to obtain goals
Incentive and
Cognitive
Theory
A strong drive, the incentive can be weak

VERY hungry eat cafeteria food
A weak drive, the incentive must be strong
Not really hungry Still eat what-a-burger

UP!

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

LO 9.4 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
AP: Compare Theories of Motivation/Identify Key Contributors
Self-actualization: the point at which

people have sufficiently satisfied the lower
needs and achieved their full human
potential
seldom reached
Peak experiences: times in a persons life

during which self-actualization is
temporarily achieved
Figure 9.3 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before
being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

LO 9.4 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Self-determination theory (SDT): the social

context of an action has an effect on the
type of motivation existing for the action
Intrinsic motivation: type of motivation in
which a person performs an action
because the act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner

Warm Up:
1. Observe- what do you notice in the picture?
2. Question- what question does the picture make you have?
3. Hypothesis- what do you think this is a picture of?
4. Explanation- what makes you say that?


Hunger: Bodily Causes

LO 9.5 Bodily Causes of Hunger and Social Factors Influencing Hunger
Glucostatic theory: hypothalamus monitors the

amount of glucose in the blood, and if it drops,
fires signals to eat
- Pancreas secretes Insulin and glucagon to
control levels of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates in the bloodstream
insulin reduces the level of glucose in the
bloodstream (use or convert energy to storage)
glucagon increases the level of glucose in the
bloodstream (converts stored energy to use)

Leptin: hormone that signals the hypothalamus

that the body has had enough food and reduces
the appetite while increasing the feeling of being
full



AP: Classic Research in Motivation Systems
Hypothalamus plays role in hunger

responds to levels of glucose and insulin in
the body
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) stops the
eating response when glucose levels go up
Lateral hypothalamus (LMH) starts the eating
response when insulin levels go up

Where are signals in the brain telling us to eat?

lateral hypothalamus (LH) provides the signals that
stimulate eating
If stimulated with electrodes, a laboratory animal will begin
eating, even if it has just finished a large meal. If the LH is
removed surgically, an animal will stop eating and eventually die
of starvation if it is not fed artificially.

Where are signals in the brain telling us to stop

eating?
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) provides the signals that
causes you to stop eating .
If stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating altogether,
even if it has been kept from food for a long period.
If the VMH is removed, however, the animal will eat and overeat
until it becomes so obese it can hardly move.
the hypothalamus responds to temperaturethe LH signal is
more active in cold temperatures, while the VMH signal is
more active in warm temperatures.


Figure 9.4 Obese Laboratory Rat

The rat on the left has reached a high level of obesity because its ventromedial hypothalamus has been
deliberately damaged in the laboratory. The result is a rat that no longer receives signals of being
satiated, and so the rat continues to eat and eat and eat.


Weight set point: the particular level of weight that the body
tries to maintain
Basal metabolic rate (BMR): the rate at which the body

burns energy when the organism is resting
- genetics, diet, lifestyle


Hunger: Social Causes

AP: Classic Research in Motivation Systems
Social cues for when meals are to be

eaten
Cultural customs
Food preferences
Use of food as a comfort device or escape
from unpleasantness
Some people may respond to the anticipation of
eating by producing an insulin response

Obesity
LO 9.6 Some Factors Creating Obesity
Obesity: the body weight of a person is 20

percent or more over the ideal body
weight for that persons height (actual
percents vary across definitions)
biological causes include heredity, hormones,
and slowing metabolism with age
overeating is a major factor as food supplies
stabilize in developing countries and Westernculture lifestyles are adopted
Obesity
Factors that indicate whether someone is overweight or obese are

determined by body mass index (BMI), a measure based on height
and weight. Using the BMI measure, about 68 percent of American
adults are overweight and about 34 percent are obese.

What did Stanley Schacters study show about the

difference in the way obese and normal-weight people
response to hunger?
Stanley Schachter and his colleagues at Columbia University
conducted a number of studies that show that obese people
respond to external cues, eating not because they are hungry,
but because they see something good to eat or a clock tells them
it is time to eat. To prove this, Schachter first set up a staged
taste test in which people were asked to rate five kinds of
crackers. The goal was to see how many crackers people at a
normal body weight would eat in comparison to how many
crackers overweight people would eat. Each person, instructed
to skip lunch, came hungry. Some were told the taste test
required a full stomach, and they were given as many roast beef
sandwiches as they wanted. The rest stayed hungry.
What did Stanley Schacters study show about the

difference in the way obese and normal-weight people
response to hunger?
Schachter had predicted that normal-weight people would eat because they
were hungry, while obese people would eat whether they were hungry or not.
This was true. People of normal weight ate more crackers than overweight
people did when both groups were hungry and fewer crackers after they had
eaten the roast beef. In another study, Schachter put out a bowl of almonds
that people could eat while they sat in a waiting room. Overweight people ate
the nuts only when they did not have to take the shells off. Thus, again they
ate simply because the food was there. People of normal weight were equally
likely to try a few nuts whether they were shelled or not.
In summary, Schachter argued that overweight people respond to external
cues (for example, the smell of fresh-baked cookies, or the clock saying it is
mealtime), while normal-weight people respond to internal cues, such as the
stomach signals of hunger. His work shows that even physiological needs like
hunger are influenced by complex factors beyond basic biological cues.

Eating Disorders
LO 9.7 Different Types of Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa (anorexia): a person

reduces eating to the point that their body
weight is significantly low
Bulimia nervosa (bulimia): a person develops
a cycle of overeating and then using
inappropriate methods of avoiding weight gain
Binge eating disorder: a person binges but
does not use methods to avoid weight gain

Eating Disorders
LO 9.7 Different Types of Eating Disorders
The causes of eating disorders are not yet

fully understood
Greatest risk factor: being an adolescent or
young adult female
Eating disorders are also found in cultures

that are not obsessed with being thin
But the rate in which they appear in Western
and non-Western cultures differs
Psychosocial factors of Hunger

One study made a connection between eating and stress. The
study found that when rats were given the physical stressor of
a pinch to their tails they reacted by eating more afterwards.
The rats that were pinched twice a day gained more weight
than those that were not pinched. The study has been repeated
using different types of stressors. In this study 24 rats, 16 with
prior experience in tail pinching studies, were subjects. When
presented with the stressor of a noise the rats with experience
in tail pinching studies would eat. Those without prior
experience did not. The study concluded that if a rat turned to
eating in the face of one stressor, it would use this coping
mechanism in the face of another as well.

Stress and Health

How does stress- and our responsesaffect our health?

Warm Up
Think about tasks that you do not
particularly enjoy doing but that they do
anyway.
What incentive do you have to complete the
task?
What emotions do you feel as you begin,
work through, and complete the task?
What role does emotion play in your decision
to complete the task?
Elements of Emotion
LO 9.8 Three Elements of Emotion
Emotion: the feeling aspect of

consciousness characterized by:
certain physical arousal
certain behavior that reveals the emotion to
the outside world
inner awareness of feelings

Elements of Emotion
Which parts of the brain are involved in

various aspects of emotion?
The amygdala
the amygdala is a complex structure with many
different nuclei and subdivisions, whose roles have
been investigated primarily through studies of fear
conditioning
emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala by both a
fast, crude low road (subcortical) and a slower
but more involved cortical high road
Figure 9.5 The Low Road and High Road

When we are exposed to an emotion-provoking stimulus (such as a shark), the neural signals travel by two pathways to the amygdala. The low road is the pathway underneath the cortex and is a
faster, simpler path, allowing for quick responses to the stimulus, sometimes before we are consciously aware of the nature of the stimulus. The high road uses cortical pathways and is slower and
more complex, but it allows us to recognize the threat and, when needed, take more conscious control of our emotional responses. In this particular example, the low road shouts, Danger! and we react
before the high road says, Its a shark!

Elements of Emotion
Which parts of the brain are involved in

various aspects of emotion?
other subcortical and cortical areas
left and right hemispheres
frontal lobes
anterior cingulate cortex
lateral orbitofrontal cortex;

Emotions
All emotions have three parts: physical, behavioral, and cognitive
Physical impacts the physical arousal
Level of arousal directs body how to respond
Behavioral is outward expression of emotion
Cognitive is how we think or interpret a situation ,which affects our
emotions
Example: someone says hello = friendly, hostile, or mocking

Emotions
Emotional intelligence- the ability to perceive, imagine,
and understand emotions and use that in decision
making
Emotional Intelligence


Gallery Walk
Using your graphic organizer and guided
questions, you will complete a silent gallery walk
over the different theories behind emotions.
We will review the theories at the end of the
class period.

Common Sense Theory of Emotion

AP: Compare and Contrast Theories of Emotion
Common sense theory of emotion: a

stimulus leads to an emotion, which then
leads to bodily arousal

Figure 9.7 Common Sense Theory of Emotion

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

LO 9.9 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories of Emotion
AP: Identify Key Contributors

Compare and Contrast Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theory of emotion: a

physiological reaction leads to the labeling
of an emotion

Figure 9.8 James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

LO 9.9 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories of Emotion
AP: Identify Key Contributors

Compare and Contrast Theories of Emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: the

physiological reaction and the emotion are
assumed to occur at the same time

Figure 9.9 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion

LO 9.10 Cognitive Arousal Theory, Facial Feedback Hypothesis and Cognitive-Mediational Theory
AP: Compare and Contrast Theories of Emotion/Identify Key Contributors
Cognitive arousal theory: both the physical

arousal and the labeling of that arousal
based on cues from the environment must
occur before the emotion is experienced

Figure 9.10 Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion

Schachter and Singers cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James-Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In
this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on the surrounding context), which leads to the
experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial feedback hypothesis: facial

expressions provide feedback to the brain
concerning the emotion being expressed,
which in turn causes and intensifies the
emotion

Figure 9.11 Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion

In the facial feedback theory of emotion, a stimulus such as this snarling dog causes arousal and a facial expression. The facial
expression then provides feedback to the brain about the emotion. The brain then interprets the emotion and may also intensify it.

Cognitive Mediational Theory

Cognitive-mediational theory: a stimulus

must be interpreted (appraised) by a
person in order to result in a physical
response and an emotional reaction

Figure 9.12 Lazaruss Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion

In Lazaruss cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., The dog is snarling and not behind
a fence, so this is dangerous). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily
response.

Elements of Emotion
AP: How Culture Influences Emotional Expression
Facial expressions can vary across

different cultures
seem to be universal
display rules
Labeling Emotion
Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it
a label

Identifying Emotions
Charles Darwin- 1872 The Expression of the Emotions in Man
and Animals
Humans express basic certain feelings in the same way
Cross culturally- basic facial expressions are innate

10 different emotional states
James A. Russell- universally recognized facial expressions

including:
Happiness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, and sadness


The Captain- Scary E

yes

Facial Feedback Theory

Range of Emotions

Learning and Emotion

James Averill- (psychology professor at UMass) emotional
reactions are results of social expectations and consequences
Cant separate an individuals physical or biological experience of
emotions from that persons thoughts or actions associated with
those emotions

Learning and Emotion

Differences in expression are also related to nurture
Parents modify childrens reactions by their responses
to displays of emotions
Cultural differences in function of emotional displays
People in Japan typically mask fear, disgust, or distress
with smile


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Chapter 9

motivation and emotion

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Learning Objective Menu

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Basic Motivational Concepts

Motivation: the process by which activities

Instinct Approaches to Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Instincts: the biologically determined and

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Theories Based on Needs and Drives

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Need: a requirement of some material

Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Drive-reduction theory: assumes behavior

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Need Drive Goal Action

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Primary drives: involve needs of the body such as

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Three Types of Needs

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Need for affiliation (nAff): the need for

Three Types of Needs

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Arousal Approach to Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Stimulus motive: a motive that appears to

Arousal Approach to Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Yerkes-Dodson law: law stating

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Figure 9.2 Arousal and Performance

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Arousal Approach to Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Sensation seeker: one who needs more

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Incentive Approaches to Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Incentives: things that attract or lure people into action

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Incentives pull us to obtain goals

A strong drive, the incentive can be weak

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation/Identify Key Contributors

Self-actualization: the point at which

Peak experiences: times in a persons life

Figure 9.3 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

AP: Compare Theories of Motivation

Self-determination theory (SDT): the social

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White