CEMENT

Cement is any material that binds or unites

essentially like glue.
In civil engineering or construction, the word
cement or cementitious material refer to an ingredient in
concrete, mortar or grout
Is the product obtained by grinding clinker
formed by burning raw-materials (argillaceous
and calcareous) primarily consisting of lime (CaO), silicate
(SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and iron
oxide (Fe2O3)
Aggregates
Natural taken from natural deposits without change in
their nature during production
Manufactured include blast furnace slag, clay,
lightweight aggregate
Fine aggregate - less than 5 mm
Coarse aggregate - greater than 5 mm (10, 20, 40 mm)
Crushed sharp angular particles, from quarry,
rough surface, good bond strength, low workability
Uncrushed round shapes, smooth surface, from river,
low bonding properties, high workability
Types of rock commonly used
Granite hard, tough and dense
Sandstone may contain clay
Limestone may contain clay
Types of aggregates based on specific gravity
Lightweight aggregate < 1200 kg/m3
Normal weight aggregate 2300 2500 kg/m3
Specific gravity in the range of 2.5-3.0
Heavyweight aggregate 4000 8500 kg/m3
Barite with specific gravity of 4.5

Water
Purpose/Peranan For hydration and workability
washing/membasuh curing/mengawet
Condition/Syarat
Clean no (acid, alkali, sulfate, clay, sugar dan chloride)
Jika kuatir bandingkan masa memejal dan kekuatan mampatan
dengan konkrit air suling/ air paip
Mixing Water
fit for drinking, unless high concentration of sodium and pottasium
contain dissolve solid less than 1000ppm
water with pH 6.0-8.0, does not taste saline or brakish (contain
chlorides and sulfates) considered suitable
chloride content < 500ppm, or SO3 < 1000ppm, water is harmless
Sea water (total salinity 3.5%) can be considered
Leads to higher early strength and lower long term strength
loss of strength not more than 15%
Sea water tend to cause persistent dampness and efflorescence
increase risk of corrosion of reinforcement
Curing Water
water suitable for mixing suitable for curing. Even water slightly
inferior in quality, is acceptable for curing
Iron and organic matter may cause staining
Water should free from substances that attack concrete (CO2)
e.g. CO2 dissolve Ca(OH)2
Effect of water/cement ratio
w/c ratio - ratio between weight of water and cement in a concrete mix
For proper hydration w/c should be about 0.35
Typical w/c ratio in practice 0.55-0.65. When water increased without
increase in cement, the void content increases and the concrete
strength drops
Cpressive strength commonly estimated from the water-cement ratio
The relationship w/c ratio to compressive strength is called Abrams
law (1918)

 Relationship between w/c ratio and comp.

strength is not unique.
Same strength cannot be maintained when
cement-aggregate proportions are varied
e.g: 1:2:3 1:1:2 with same w/c ratio 0.55
further strength varies with maximum size
aggregate, fineness modulus of fine aggregate, or
the type of coarse aggregate is change
At same w/c ratio, mortar is stronger than
concrete
High w/c ratio
Easy to work the concrete pour and compact
and vice versa..
workability is high
Too wet a concrete bleeding and segregation
will occur. Loss of cohesion
If concrete too dry, it will difficult to compact
fully/vibrate, void formed, weak and permeable
Influence of Voids
Increase in w/c ratio increases the voids in
concrete, lowering durability, water tightness, and
compressive strength
Good dense concrete requires a sufficient
amount of cement to achieve strength, suitable
gradation to minimize void content, and proper
consolidation to remove air bubbles
Amount of water enough to guarantee the
hydration of all cement grains
Good quality concrete
sufficient amount of cement
well graded aggregates
ample compaction and,
minimum mixing water

Benefits of Curing
Concrete ripens and grows
stronger with age and curing
Curing controls moisture and
temperature and its effects on
hydration
Strength of properly cured
concrete
at 1 day 10-15% of 28-day
strength.
at 7 days 50-60% of 28-day
strength
Moist cured specimens continue to
gain strength even after several
years
Use of steam for early curing
dramatically builds up the strength
Properties of Engineering
Materials
Materials should perform
satisfactorily during service
for highway bridge adequate
strength, rough surface, and
sufficient rigidity
water-retaining structure would be
built with a material that is
impermeable, crack-free, strong,
and does not react with water
a road surface needs such
materials that show little movement
under the impact of loads, are water
resistant, and are easy to repair
The common properties of
engineering materials are
Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Chemical properties

Physical - derived from properties of

matter
density, porosity, void content,
moisture
content, specific gravity, permeability,
and structure, also texture, colour and
shape
Mechanical measure the
resistance of a material to applied
loads or forces.
Some reflect the strength of the
material, whereas others measure the
deformation capacity or stiffness
Strength is a measure of the
maximum load per unit area, and can
be in relation to tension, compression,
shear, flexure, torsion, or impact. Also
include brittleness, plasticity and
ductility
Chemical are those pertaining to
the composition and potential reaction
of a material.
The compound of composition, such
as oxides and carbonates, describe
the chemical nature of the material,
and the way it would behave in a
certain environment
Chemical properties such as acidity,
alkalinity, and resistance to corrosion
of materials are especially noteworthy

FRESH CONCRETE
Quality Concrete should
Fresh state good workability
Hardened state strong and durable
Strength and durability influenced by voids and
pores exists due to
incomplete vibration
too much water
Workability
Definition
Property of the concrete which determines its
ability to be placed, compacted and finished (the
greatest emphasis
should be placed on compaction)
The amount of work needed to produce full
compaction
thereby relating it to the placing rather than handling
process
(Can be associate with cohesion, mobility, internal
friction, pump and finishing)
High workability: easy to place, compact and work
With
Factor that influence workability
Water/cement ratio,
shape, texture, grading and types of aggregate
cement content and types,
temperature and time
Concrete should be fully compacted 1% fresh
concrete void reduce 3-5% hardened concrete
Surface Area
For a fixed cement, water and aggregate content,
workability is influenced by surface area of the
aggregate
Workability can be improved by using large,
rounded shape aggregate.

Grading
More fine aggregate reduce
workability (shrinkage, cost)
Coarse aggregate improve
workability and strength of
concrete (jika terlalu banyak
konkrit kesat/ harsh)
Shape and Texture
Workability is influenced more
by the shape rather than texture
of the aggregate
Aggregate that is round in
shape and smooth surface
enhance concrete workability
(Batu berbentuk bulat (sfera) dan
permukaan licin menghasil konkrit
berkebolehkerjaan tinggi dan
sebaliknya.)
Fineness of cement
Workability reduce with the
fineness of cement.
Fine cement increase cohesion in
the mix
Rate of reduction of workability
Influenced by richness of mix,
cement type, concrete
temperature, surrounding
temperature and workability

WORKABILITY TEST
Slump Test
BS 1881: Part 102:1983, ASTM C14390a
Widely used on site, easier to use,
and
suitable to determine uniformity of mix
Procedure:
Place the cone on flat surface
Load 3 layers of concrete, layer by
layer
Each layer tamped/rodded 25 X
Raise the cone slowly
Ukur runtuhan (slump) mm
Types of slump
True Slump:
Concrete suitable for structural use
slump 15 150 mm
ketuk sedikit selepas bacaan melihat
kestabilan konkrit
Shear or Collapse
Concrete not suitable for structural
use
repeat
Effectiveness of Slump Test
Suitable to determine changes in
workability
Difficult to work on dry concrete
Suitable to determine uniformity of
material from time to time esp on site

Compacting Factor Test

BS 1881: Part 103: 1993, ACI 211.3-75:1992
Measuring the ratio of concrete that is partially compacted
to the concrete fully compacted
Procedure:
Load the concrete into a hopper, release the lid and allow
the concrete fall vertically into a similar lower hopper, and
finally into a cylinder. Level the concrete and weighed.
(partially compacted concrete)
Emptied the cylinder and refilled. This time fully compacting
the concrete (fully compacted concrete). Nisbahkan.
Nisbah ini dinamakan angkali kepadatan, lazimnya antara
0.7 dan 1.0
The value will approach unity for wet mixes
Effectiveness of test
Suitable for dry concrete, changes in workability
will be notice from the compacting factor
Vebe Test
BS 1881: Part 104:1983, ACI 211.3-75:1987
Workability is determine by measuring the time
taken by the concrete to change its shape from cone to
cylinder
Procedure:
Insert and tamped concrete in a cone. Raise the cone.
A slump test is first carried out and a perspex disc attached
to a vertical guide is allowed to rest gently on the concrete
Vibrate the table and the time taken for the underside of
the perspex disc to become completely covered in concrete
is measured in SECONDs
Effectiveness
Suitable for dry mix
Electrical source needed

Comparison of workability measurement

Slump(mm)
0
0-0
10-30
30-60
60-80

Vebe(s)
> 20
20-2
12-6
6-3
3-0

Compacting Factor
0.65-0.75
0.75-0.85
0.85-0.90
0.90-0.93
> 0.93

Workability categories: Properties and Applications

Stability of Fresh Concrete

Define as the capability of the mix to remain uniform after the
process of transportation, placing and vibrating.No segregation
and bleeding
Factor that increase stability of mix
Aggregate of uniform grade/ baik
Smaller aggregate size
Use air entraining agent
kadaran zarah halus yang lebih tinggi (simen atau gantian
simen)

Segregation
Segregation is the tendency for separation between large and
fine particles of fresh concrete.
Rock pockets, sand streaks, crazing, and surface scaling are
usually related to segregation
Two modes of segregation
Segregation of coarse agg. from mortar - pada bancuhan
kering, maka tambah sedikit air
Segregation of render from mix - sering berlaku pada konkrit
terlalu basah
Factor that cause Segregation
Main factor
Differences in particle size, luas tentu permukaan, mortar
content, differences of aggregate density
Factor that reduce stability
Very wet mix or deficient in finer particles
Not enough binder
Moving the concrete over a long distances
ketumpatan batu baur kasar yang jauh berbeza drp pasir
Too much superplasticizer
Reduction of Segregation
Fresh concrete must be drop vertically not at an angle
Avoid over vibration
Avoid transporting concrete over a long distance
elak menyerak konkrit menggunakan penggetar
Use tube if placing concrete from higher position
Bleeding
A concrete mix that does not possess proper consistency is
unable to hold the mix water, which slowly get displaced and
then rises to the top of the form. The water will eventually be
lost, either through
evaporation or by leakage through the joints and sides of the
forms.
This layer is weak, telap/absorb and less durable
Some bleeding might trapped under the aggregate or
reinforcement. This will affect the bonding

Reduction of Bleeding
Decrease in water cement ratio
Rich mixes, mixes with more cement
Use air entrainment
Use fine cement/ or PFA
Avoid over vibration, and
Use lower w/c ratio for later batch of concrete
Wet Concrete
Segregation
Separation of the components of fresh concrete
Bleeding
Appearance of water on the surface
Laitance
Tendency of water rising in the internal channels within the
concrete

ONSITE CONCRETE
PREPARATION
Do necessary preparation so that no disturbance to progress of
work
Access to and from site - lorry
No contamination on material store
Storage area, what material to store
Avoid duplication
PRODUCTION STEP
Step to follow
batching
mixing
transporting
placing
compacting, and
curing

Batching
Batching is the process of collecting, storing and
proportioning the constituents of concrete prior to mixing
Materials are proportion according to specification.
Measurement can be in a form of weight . For small
quantity measurement by volume can be considered.
Mixing
Purpose is to coat the surface of all the aggregate
particles with cement paste, and to blend all the
ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass
Mixing time 1- 3 min, depend on type and size of,
workability and quantity of mix
Avoid overloaded. Clean mixer after used
Concrete mixing
The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation or
stirring,
the objective being to coat the surface of all aggregate
particles with cement paste, and to blend all the
ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass
Three methods of concrete mix Nominal mix
Prescribed mix
Design mix
Concrete mixing 1
Nominal mix
Quantity of cement, sand and aggregate determined
according to weight or volume.
1:2:4 means 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 coarse aggregate
Concrete mixing 2
Prescribed mix
Quantity of concrete materials is determined
to Table 5, BS 5328.
Suitable for concrete grade 25 and below

Prescribed mix
Quantity of concrete materials is determined according to Table 5, BS
5328.
Suitable for concrete grade 25 and below
Concrete mixing 3
Design mix
Quantity of concrete material are calculated following example in
Design of Normal Concrete Mixes - British Research Establishment
Followed by trial mix. Adjust whatever necessary
Designed Mix (DOE)
Procedure as specified in Table 1
Required some specified information
Characteristic strength from structural engineer
Workability and the size of aggregate, based on the nature of
application
Durability, based on the condition of the application
Tables and figures are based on UK data
Design for 1 m3 concrete
Concrete mixing 4
Ready-Mixed Concrete
1. Central-mixed concrete
2. Shrink-mixed Concrete is partially mixed .and completed in a
mixer truck
3. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a mixer truck

Advantage/Disadvantage
Advantage
Supplier specialised in concrete production
Concrete more consistent
Save site space
Cost control easier
Quality control transfer to supplier
Disadvantage
Site road and job access have to be constructed
Deliveries may be late due to traffic, breakdown
Volume requirement ?
Cancellations well in advance
Handling
There are many methods of transporting concrete from mixer
to site
Bucket and wheelbarrow
Dumper and monorail
Crane and skip
Chutes/Conveyor/pelongsor,
pump
Bucket and Wheelbarrow
- Small quantity
- Mixer should be as close as possible to working area
-Long distance can cause segregation
Crane and Skip
-To transport concrete in vertical direction
-Can easily reached the work area
-Also used to transport reinforcement and formwork
Chutes/Conveyor & Pump
Chutes/Conveyor/Pelongsor
Suitable method to transport concrete to work below ground
level (basement)
Pump
For large volume discharge fast, efficient and less wastage
Deliver more than 30m3/hour
Can deliver up to 300m-horizontal, 100m vertical

Discharged
Ensure formwork is clean, paint inside formwork with grease
Ensure formwork is strong (fresh concrete, tamping and
vibration)
Dont use vibrator to move concrete horizontally
Dont drop concrete higher than 1.5m
For large volume discharge, discharge layer by layer 450
600mm
Compaction
Concrete should be compacted immediately after placing to
expel air trapped inside, reduce permeability and ensure
bonding between reinforcement and concrete
Time taken to vibrate concrete influence compaction and
strength
Over vibration segregation and bleeding
Under vibration concrete weak
Revibration at 1 or 2 hours after placing increases the
compressive strength of concrete up to 15%. Enhance bond
between concrete and reinforcement and relief of plastic
shrinkage stresses around the large aggregate particles
Types of vibrator
Internal Vibrator
Poker vibrator (dia. 25-300mm), immerse vertically and moved
from place to place every 0.5 - 1m for 5s to 2 min.
Completion of compaction can be judged by the appearance of
the surface of the concrete, which should neither honeycombed
nor contain an excess of mortar
Poker is withdrawal gradually of about 80mm/s.
For second layer placing, rod is immersed to about 100mm
inside the old layer to get a uniform mix.

 External vibrator
Rigidly clamped to the formwork which rests on an elastic
support, so that both the form and the concrete vibrated. Used for
precast or thin in-situ section or congested with reinforcement.
Suitable for steel formwork
Surface vibrator
Suitable for spread concrete, thickness not more than 150mm
CURING
The placing of concrete must be followed by curing
Curing - procedure that maintains proper moisture and
temperature to ensure continuous hydration
90% of cement will hydrate in about 90 days
If we value 90-day strength as 100, at 28 days-80%; at 14
days-70%; at 7 days-45% and at 3 days-30%
The strength can only continue if the concrete is kept moist
and at a favorable temperature, especially during first few
days after placing
Evaporation will be higher in low humidity, in high winds, or
if temperature of the concrete is very high
Cold and frost are not good for newly formed concrete neither are
excessive heat or sudden changes in temperature Good cured
concrete
Improved quality and performance
Decreased Permeability and increased Durability
Good resistance to abrasion
Develop strong and firm surface
Less or no plastic shrinkage
Methods of Curing
Maintain presence of water
Water Spraying/Ponding
Must be carried out thoroughly. A continuous fog spraying or
sprinkling of water is required
Ponding is accomplished by building earth or sand dikes around
the perimeter of the concrete slab to retain a pond of water within
the enclosed area
The water needs to be at a temperature close to that of the
concrete surface

Wet Covering
Surfaces can be effectively cured by using hessian or other
absorbent materials, providing they can be kept continually
wet and are uniformly positioned
Waterproof Paper
Can also be used on unobstructed horizontal surface
Polythene Sheeting
Can be used similar to waterproof paper
White sheeting will reflect the suns rays and will be useful
in warm weather
Polythene sheeting can cause discoloration or mottling of
the hardened concrete
Prevent loss of mixing water
Spray-on-membranes
Liquid membrane-forming materials containing waxes,
resins, etc. are applied by spraying, brushing or rolling on
horizontal or vertical surfaces to retain moisture or retard
evaporation
The material should be sprayed evenly as soon as the free
water has evaporated
Curing compounds may prevent a bond between the
hardened concrete and any screed or wet concrete
applied later
Accelerate Hydration
Use of Heat
Curing time can be reduced in a number of different ways,
including space heating, electrical heating and steam curing
Space heating
area ready for concrete can be temporary enclosed by the
use of screens, tarpaulins or plastic sheeting.
This enables oil or electric space heaters or fires to provide
and maintain in this limited area a temperature which will
keep the concrete at least above 5oC

Electrical curing
Replacing braziers as a form of accelerated curing, primarily in
precast factories, to assist in the reduction in the number of
moulds
Low voltage electricity is used and by embedding wire heater
elements between plywood laminations, thermal efficiency is
high and the method clean and easy to use
Steam curing
Favourable method of curing for precast and concrete
masonry block
Structural members are covered with tarpaulins and pipes fed
underneath conveying moist hot steam
Curing in Hot Weather
In hot weather, exposed concrete must be kept cool,
both during mixing and throughout the curing period
Problem in hot weather concreting due to the faster
rate of hydration and increased rate of evaporation
(concrete temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity,
and air temperature)
When evaporation is not controlled, concrete are prone
to thermal cracking
Lowering the temperature of coarse agg. decrease the
concrete temperature
The common methods for cooling concrete in hot weather
application are:
Cooling the mixing water with chipped ice
Shading the aggregate storage and water tank
Painting the truck mixers white
Avoidance of overmixing
Keeping the humidity high and air temperature low with fog
sprays around the area where concrete is placed
Use retarder in the mix

Curing Period
Curing period cannot be prescribed in a simple way
but,
If the temperature is above 10oC, ACI 308-92 lays down a
minimum of
3 days : RHPC (type III)
7 days : OPC (type I)
14 days : LHPC (type IV)
BS 8110:Part 1:1985 lays down the normal curing periods for
different cements and exposure
Conditions
FORMWORK
To support fresh concrete and to form a shapeand size of
designated elements
Can be made from timber, steel, grp and polystyrene
Formwork should be firm and strong, not bending and can
absorb vibration due to compaction activity etc.
Easy to install and open and maintain
Paint with grease to prevent sticking to Concrete
Premature Removal of Forms
Removal of forms (including shoring) before the concrete
has reached its proper strength may result in compression
and tension stresses, causing cracking, deflection, and
possible collapse
Striking formwork
Formwork at soffit of beam and slab should be open later than
on the side
Time to strike formwork depend on types and strength of
concrete, weather, curing types and etc. Refer to BS 8110 Part
1: 1985,Table 6.6

Joints in concrete
Joints in concrete elements are provided to accomplish
Minimize undesirable cracking
Accommodate differential movement of adjacent elements
Provide a natural plane of weakness
Prevent bonding of adjacent elements
Workforce have to go home
Three main types of joints
Construction joints
Water-tight joints
Movement or controlled joints
Construction Joints
(isolation or expansion joints)
At construction joints fresh concrete is placed against
concrete that has already hardened to provide structural
continuity across the joint
The joint placed at the end of days placement or at the
beginning of the next days concreting
Sealing of construction joints is necessary to keep
pebbles, debris, water away and to arrest the water from
draining through the joint into the subgrade or soil
Cold Joints
Cold joints are places of discontinuity within a member
where concrete may not tightly bond to itself (old and new
layer)
To achieve proper bond and watertightness, the surface of
hardened concrete must be free of dirt, debris, and laitance
Isolation or Expansion joints - to separate a slab from
other part of a structure, such as beam and columns to
prevent bonding and permit horizontal and vertical
movement
Also for the convenience and necessity of the construction
process
Joints may be created to separate walls and columns
vertical elements-from the floor to allow free movement

Movement and water-tight Joints

These joints meet structural, thermal or watertightness
requirement. Described in specifications as either joints between
lifts or bays designed to permit movement but resist water
or joints to permit movement caused by heat, shrinkage or
settlement
Control Joints
These joints called dummy joints or control joints provided
to accommodate movement from temperature changes, drying
shrinkage and creep, are meant to direct the cracks to the location
of the groove
Control joints provided in large structures such as side walks, floor
slabs, drive-ways and walls are made by tooling, forming, scoring,
or sawing partway through the concrete to form a weakend plane.
When the member cracks it will do so along the predetermined
lines
The joint is accomplished by placing a thin wood strip or
premolded joint material at the joint location
The grooves are formed to a depth of about one- onefourth the
slab thickness, with a minimum of one-fifth the thickness

DESIGNING A CONCRETE MIX

DOE METHOD
The History
The British method of concrete mix design, popularly referred
to as the "DOE method", - used in the UK and other parts of the
world and has a long established record.
The method originates from the "Road Note No 4 which was
published in Great Britain in 1950. In 1975 the note was
replaced by the "Design of Normal Concrete Mixes", published
by the British Department of the Environment (DOE).
In 1988 the "Design of Normal Concrete Mixes" was issued
in a revised and updated edition to allow for changes in various
British Standards
Constituents
The DOE method utilizes British test data obtained at the
Building Research Establishment, the Transport and Road
Research Establishment, and the British Cement Association.
The aggregates used in the tests conformed to BS 882.
The cements comply to BS 12 or BS 4027
Assumptions
The DOE method is based on various assumptions and
requirements:
Mixes are specified by the weights of the different materials
contained in a given volume of fully compacted concrete.
It is assumed that the volume of freshly mixed concrete
equals the sum of the air content and of the absolute volumes of
its constituent materials.
The method therefore requires that the absolute densities of
the materials be known in order that their absolute volumes may
be calculated.

Absolute Volume
The absolute volume of a quantity of a material is the sum of
the volumes of its particles.
The DOE Method, assumes that the volume of fully compacted
freshly mixed concrete equals the sum of absolute volumes of its
constituent materials.
Assumptions
It is assumed that the workability of a concrete mix depends
primarily on:
The Free Water Content
The Fine Aggregate Type and, to a lesser degree, the Coarse
Aggregate Type
The Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate
Free Water Content
The water, which is available to react with the cement, is
termed the free water content of the concrete and influences
the strength, durability and workability of the concrete
critically.
The free water content is generally determined by a
compromise between workability requirements and strength and
durability needs.
It is the sum of
the mix water
the surface water of the aggregates
less
the water absorbed by the aggregate in the time between the
mixing and the setting of the concrete.
Total Water Content
Consists of the water absorbed by the aggregate to bring it to a
saturated surface-dry condition, and
The free water available for the hydration of the cement, and
For the workability of the fresh concrete

Concrete Strength
It is assumed that the strength of a concrete mix depends on:
The Free water/Cement Ratio;
The Coarse Aggregate Type;
The Cement Properties.

Free Water/Cement Ratio

DOE method determines Free Water/Cement Ratio, which will
provide a particular concrete strength for different cement
properties and coarse aggregate types, using the results of
numerous tests.

Free Water/Cement Ratio

The Free Water/Cement Ratio is defined as the ratio by weight
of the free water content to the cement content.
It has been long been accepted that a low free water/cement
ratio in a concrete mix is essential for the concretes subsequent
strength and durability.
It appears that an excessive free water content leads to the
formation of capillary pores, which seriously affect the concrete
strength and the concrete durability.

Characteristic Strength
Characteristic strength strictly means the concrete strength
(nominal strength), below which on average a certain proportion
of test results will fall. This proportion is termed the "proportion
of
defectives".
Many Standards, for example BS8110, use characteristic
strengths as a basis for concrete design.

Cement Pores
Gel pores
pores exist in the gel itself
28% of the cement
very fine 2nm
no mobility of water
Capilary pores
exist due to unhydrated compound during hydration
pore size 1m gel
interconnected pores
about 40% volume of pores
depend on
water/cement
degree of hydration

Proportion of Defectives
Proportion of Defectives is defined in statistics as the
proportion of a set of test results, which will fail on average.
The CIB/FIP "International recommendations for the design
and construction of concrete structures, BS 5328:1985 and BS
8110:1985, all recommend that a proportion of defectives of 5
%
should be adopted for concrete strength test results.
Concrete Strength
Generally a concrete mix is required to provide a specified
strength.
The most common measure of concrete strength is the
compressive strength, determined in either a cube test or a
cylinder test.
Since the strength of a concrete specimen increases with
time, the concrete age at testing is significant.
It is also important to remember that the target strength of a
mix will only be attained in practice, if the concrete is properly
placed, well compacted and adequately cured.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
A concrete mix must provide adequate durability. However
concrete mixes are not normally tested for durability directly.
Instead concrete specifications frequently contain mix
requirements, which are designed to provide durability by
ensuring that the set concrete attains a minimum strength.
It allows to specify a Maximum Free water/Cement Ratio for
durability purposes.
Aggregates & Strength
Concrete strength is influenced by the coarse aggregate type
used in the mix
Generally uncrushed aggregates are smoother than crushed
aggregates and so concrete made with crushed aggregates
can achieve a given strength with a higher free water/cement
ratio than concrete made with uncrushed aggregates.
Aggregates & Workability
The type of aggregate influences the workability.
In comparison with concrete made with uncrushed coarse
aggregate, concrete containing crushed coarse aggregate will
generally have superior strength and inferior workability,
although the coarse aggregate has considerably less influence
on the workability than the fine aggregate.
Generally uncrushed aggregates are smoother than crushed
aggregates and so concrete made with uncrushed aggregates
needs less free water to achieve a given workability than
concrete made with crushed aggregates.
Since the fine aggregate has a greater influence on the
workability than the coarse aggregate, the DOE method
assumes that the influence of the fine aggregate type on the
required free water content for workability is twice that of the
coarse aggregate type.

Mix Design Stages

The mix design DOE Method is carried out in the following five
stages.
Stage (I). Determine Free Water/Cement Ratio Required for
Strength.
Stage (II). Determine Free Water Content Required for
Workability
Stage (III). Determine Required Cement Content
Stage (IV). Determine Total Aggregate Content
Stage (V). Determine Fine Aggregate Content
Stage (I)
Determine Free Water/Cement Ratio Required for Strength
Either use a specified margin or calculate a margin for a given
proportion of defectives and statistical standard deviation.
Obtain the target mean strength by adding the margin to the
required characteristic strength.
Either accept a specified free water/cement ratio or obtain the
maximum free water/cement ratio which will provide the target
mean strength for concrete made from the given coarse
aggregate type and from cement with the given properties.
Stage (II)
Determine Free Water Content Required for Workability
Either use a specified free water content or obtain the minimum
free water content, which will provide the desired workability for
concrete made with the given fine aggregate type, coarse
aggregate type and maximum size of coarse aggregate.
If the free water content has been determined for workability,
adjust the required free water content if air entrainment is
specified, and
adjust further if a water-reducing admixture is specified.

Stage (III)
Determine Required Cement Content
Obtain the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, by dividing the free water content obtained in
Stage (II) by the free water/cement ratio obtained in Stage (I).
Check the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, against the maximum cement content, which is
permitted, and give a warning if the former exceeds the latter.
Check the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, against the minimum cement content, which is
allowable for durability, and adopt whichever is greater to be
the cement content in the mix.
Divide the free water content by the cement content used in
the mix to obtain a modified free water/cement ratio.

MODIFICATION TO THE MIX DESIGN

METHOD

Stage (IV)
Determine Total Aggregate Content
Obtain a value for the overall aggregate density.
Obtain the fractional volume of the aggregate by
subtracting the proportional volumes of the free water and
the cement from a unit volume.
Calculate the total aggregate content by dividing the
volume of the aggregate by the aggregate density.

Effect of entrained air on workability

It increases the workability.
It modifies the character of the fresh concrete, making it more
plastic and cohesive.
A reduction in fine aggregate by up to 5% of the total aggregate.

Stage (V)
Determine Fine Aggregate Content
Either use a specified value of the percentage of fine
aggregate, or obtain the percentage of fine aggregate, which
will provide the desired workability for concrete made with the
given grading of fine aggregate, maximum size of coarse
aggregate and the free water/cement ratio obtained in Stage
(III).
Calculate the fine and coarse aggregate contents from the
total aggregate content obtained in Stage (IV) and the
percentage of fine aggregate.

Effect of entrained air on strength

Generally, concrete strength is reduced by the addition of
entrained air.
A loss of 5.5% in strength will result for each 1% by volume of air
entrained in the mix.
An allowance for strength reduction is incorporated to get higher
target mean strength through this relation:
[fc + M] / [1-0.055a]
Where:
fc = specified strength.
M = the margin.
a = percentage by volume of air entrained.

Effect of entrained air on Density

In the case of air-entrained concrete, after determining density
value from the chart, the correct value is obtained by subtracting
from the calculated value an amount of:
10 x a x RDA
Where: a = % air entrained.
RDA = the relative density of the agg. Calculated on SSD basis.
If unknown assume it 2.6 or 2.7.
Modifications to the design process
The design process is basically the same as normal method
except for the changes needed to be addressed through target
mean strength, free-water content and concrete density.

Design of Portland cement/ggbfs mixes

Ggbfs = Ground granulated blast furnace slag.
It is generally used as a replacement of cement on the basis of a
direct weight for weight replacement.
Replacements are generally in the order of from 30 to 50 % by
weight. For some purposes, a replacement of 70% or more could be
used.
Benefits:
1- It improves the workability of the concrete.
2- the rate of strength development is that it is slower at early ages
but the strength gain after 28 days is higher than that of a
comparable portland cement concrete.
3- It reduces the thermal cracking problems due to the heat of
evaluation during the hydration of the cement.
4- It helps when it is used in a concrete placed in sulphate
bearing soil conditions.
Effect of using Ggbfs on concrete properties
* Workability and water content:
It acts like a water reducing agent.
Roughly a reduction of 5 kg/m3 of water content can be achieved.
Variability of Concrete strength:
On site variability of Portland cement /ggbfs concrete is no greater
than that of portland cement concrete.
Density of portland cement/ggbfs concrete:
The relative density of ggbfs = 2.9.
Although RD of ggbfs is slightly less than that of Portland cement
but the water content is normally reduced and the total results is
that no significant change to the wet density of the concrete
compared
with that of Portland cement concrete.
Proportion of Ggbfs used
- General use, including structures (about 40%)
- Improved resistance to sulphates (70-90%)
- Improved resistance to alkali-silica reaction (50%)

How to design the mix.?

Design an ordinary Portland cement mix as
before and then modified to replace some of the cement by
ggbfs.
The cement content obtained in Stage 3 is
divided for example 60% OPC and 40% ggbfs.
When the mix parameters of Portland cement/ggbfs
concrete are compared against specified limits of min. or
max. cement content or max. free W/C ratio, the cement
here is the combined sum of Portland cement plus ggbfs.

BINGHAM MODEL
Concrete Fresh Properties
Main Properties In Relation to Handling, Placing &
Compacting
(1) FLUIDITY
It must be capable of being handled. Flowing into the
formwork & around any reinforcement e.g concrete for lightly
reinforced, shallow floor slab need NOT be as fluid as that for
a narrow, heavily reinforced column.
(2) COMPACTABILITY
Removal of air entrapped during mixing & handling using
any compacting system
(3) STABILITY or COHESIVENESS
Stable in the homogeneous uniform mass i.e no
segregation.
WORKABILITY MEASUREMENTCont.
(2) SINGLE POINT TEST
Tests initiated prior to the understanding of concrete as
bingham material: Arbitrary tests for workability; some are still
in common use
All of these are single point tests
-Slump
-Compacting factor
-Vebe
-Flow table
-Hence none can truly represent the workability of
Concrete
-They measure the response of the concrete to specific but
arbitrary & different test conditions.
-Slump, vebe & flow table tests provide a measure of the
consistency
-Compacting factor test comes closest to measure
compactability of concrete
-Despite the limitations, single point tests particularly slump
test remains popular

FLOW TEST
Developed in Germany 1993
More widely used for concrete of high and very high
workability
Added superplasticizing admixtures
Flow table 700 x 700 mm
Free edges can rise to 40mm
Table top is moistened and a frustrum of a cone (concrete) lightly
tamped.
After 30 s, table top is lifted and drop 15 times with a cycle of 4s
(period 45 to 75 s)
measure concrete spread, 400 medium workability, 500 high
Two-point Test
Tattersall (1991), critized all the existing workability test
They measure only one parameter
The flow of fresh concrete should be described by Bingham
model
t = t0 + g or T = g + h.N
where T=t = shear stress at rate of shear
g = t0 = yield stress
h = = plastic viscosity
BINGHAM MODEL
The behaviour of fresh paste, mortar & concrete BINGHAM
model
Concrete flow hindered by interference & friction of the
particles; cement & aggregates in the mix Flow only starts as
applied shear stress reaches a yield value Ty i.e. inter particle
interference effect is sufficiently overcome
At higher stress, rate of shear varies approx. linear with shear
stress. Slope defines plastic viscosity, u

(1) TWO POINT TEST

-To quantify concrete workability, determine the two
BINGAM constants yield point, Ty & slope, 1/u
-Absolute measurement is difficult
-A system based on measuring torque required to
turn an impeller in a bowl of concrete was devised
(Tattersall & Banfill, 1983)
-Torque is measured for a number of impeller
speed; plot Torque Vs Speed Hence yield torque
( g = Ty and slope, 1/h = 1/u) can be determined.
-The so called two point test because two data
points are required to define the torque/speed
relationship.
-The values of g & h depend on both concrete
properties & apparatus geometry. But by keeping
the LATTER constant different concrete can be
compared
-Inference from the torque/speed relationship:
(i) Increase water content whilst keeping constant
the proportion of other constituents results in
decrease of g & h more workable but cohesion
reduced causes segregation & bleeding
(ii) Adding plasticiser or super plasticises decreases
g but leaves h relatively constant i.e workable &
cohesive
(2) SINGLE POINT TEST
Slump has a better correlation with g than h since
tests are at low shear rate i.e. slump increasing
with decreasing g
Reason for continuing popularity of SLUMP TEST
SIMPLICITY
-- For quality control of concrete production, if only
one variable is considered of significance e.g. water
slump test is a useful way of assessing variation

FLOWING CONCRETE
Pumpable and Flowable Concrete
Requirements for Pumpable Concrete
1: Liquid Phase WATER is the Carrier.
-The ONLY pumpable Constituent of Concrete Mix.
-Must be Sufficient to SATURATE Mix.
-Must NOT be oversaturated: Cohesive nature LOST.
2: Materials below 300 microns in size
(Cement, fine sand, stone dust, PFA etc)
-Control the LIQUID phase under PRESSURE by virtue of their
void size & surface area.
-Lack of which results in LACK of control over liquid phase &
SEGREGATION occurs.
-Excess Liquid over-controlled resulting in HIGH pipe
friction.
3: Sand: Size no 52 5 mm
-Provides SUPPORT to finer solids by producing VOIDS.
-Needs GOOD Grading.
-Particle size affects the behaviour of water phase:
Harsh angular not packing well & thus high Void.
Smooth rounded large individual voids.
Balanced & Well Graded; best for pumping concrete river
sand (Zone 2 to 3).
4: Coarse Fraction of Aggregates
-Provides SPACE for filler.
-Holds or Controls the Sand.
-Void Structures SHOULD be COMPATIBLE with volume of
sand and Cement.
-Grading is Important.
-SHAPE Balanced between rounded and angular (9 mm
grading portion can be manipulated add or remove.

In Practice CONCRETE is designed for its properties in

set state i.e. STRENGTH
1.Pumpable Concrete Superimposed Property.
2.Medium WORKABILITY required Slump 50 to 100 mm.
3.Hence if the VOID content of the combined aggregates
is EQUAL to the bulk volume of cement and water phase
the concrete is POTENTIALLY pumpable! (See Fig. 4)
The substance within concrete which in itself pumpable is
WATER. Hence the STABILITY of water in mix determines
PUMPABILITY.
The quality & quantity of aggregates especially sand plays
important role. (See Fig 4).
-Resistance to passage of water in sand fine fraction
300 microns and less. (FILLER CONTENT: cement,
pozzolans, fine sand).
-Responsible for concrete to flow.
Lower & Upper LIMITS of Pumpability
LLP Concrete which blocks in pipeline due to migration
of water i.e. bleeding. The point at which concrete will
just cease to pump in this case (bleed) is known as LLP.
ULP As filler content (300 m & below) increases, & so
does the ability of mix to withstand greater pressure. But
frictional back pressure increases Finally too great for
the pump & hence stop. This point known as ULP.

LLP: CHARACTERISTICS
-Low/modest cement content.
-Sand may be coarse & concrete shows tendency to
bleed.
-Blockage will occur at zone of highest pressure gradient; at or
near pump.
-Reduction in line length/pipe offers little or NO improvement.
-Increase in SLUMP beyond 75 mm offers NO improvement,
in fact even WORSE.
ULP: CHARACTERISTICS
-Concrete contains HIGH fines.
-Ability to pump depend very much on line length. Thus pipe
length reduction OFFERS improvement.
-Increase in SLUMP improves PUMPABILITY.
Consider 2 identical concrete mixes using 2 different
sources of sand.
A. Material Dry wt/m3
Sand Grade
Cement
300 kg
Sand
750 kg 22 % passing 300 m.
Agg
1100 kg
B. Similar to A except only 5% of sand passing 300 m sieve.
A pumpable but B NOT; Why???
FILLER Content
A: 750 x 0.22 + 300 = 465 kg = 21.6% dry wt
Within limit, Hence PUMPABLE.
B: 750 x 0.05 + 300 = 338 kg = 15.7% dry wt
LLP, Hence NOT Pumpable.
SCC Concrete
Self-Consolidating Concrete
Self-Compacting Concrete
Flowable Concrete

SCC DEFINATION
Concrete mixture that can be placed purely by means
of its own weight, with little or no vibration.
SCC CONCRETE
SCC is a highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that can
spread into place, fill formwork and encapsulate even the most
congested reinforcement, all without any mechanical vibration.
ORIGIN OF SCC CONCRETE
In the early 1980s, Professor Hajime Okamura (University of
Tokyo, now Kochi Institute of Technology) advocated the use of
SCC to solve workmanship in Japan.
SCC Japan uses superplasticizer to make the concrete more
fluid and viscosity modifying agent to increase plasticity prevent
segregation.
Advantages of SCC Concrete
-No mechanical vibration - savings in placement costs.
-Improved and more uniform architectural surface finish.
-Ease of filling restricted sections and hard-to-reach areas.
-Improved bond and consolidation around reinforcement.
-Improved pumpability of the concrete.
-Labor savings.
-Shorter construction periods construction COST savings.
Rheological Properties of SCC Concrete
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of
materials.
Self Consolidation Concretes rheological properties are;
Filling ability
Passing ability (resistance to blocking)
Stability (segregation resistance)

SCC Performance Specifications

1.Workability
Slump flow > 600 mm.
Remain flowable 90 minutes.
Withstand a slope of 3%.
Pumpable 90 minutes through pipes 100 m long.
2.Mechanical Properties:
28-day compressive strength = Similar to HPC.
Creep and Shrinkage = Similar to HPC.
3.Durability Parameter:
Freeze-thaw resistance HPC.

Test Methods for Fresh SCC

1. Concrete Rheometer
-Rheometer is a device that applies a range of shear rates and
monitors the force needed to maintain these shear rates in a
plastic material.
-To measure the yield stress, viscosity and other rheological
characteristics of SCC
2. The Slump Flow Test
3. T50 test - For evaluating the material segregation
4. Funnel Test - For evaluating the material segregation
resistance. Efflux time of SCC with coarse aggregates having
the
maximum size of less than 25 mm is measured.
5. U-Type and Box-Type Tests - For testing flowability of SCC
through an obstacle with coarse aggregates having the
maximum size of less than 25 mm

CONCLUSIONS
The material cost for SCC concrete is about 10 to
15%
higher than conventional concrete.
BUT if other components of costs like the cost of
consolidation, finishing, less labour etc.. is taken into
consideration, then one would realize that SCC is
certainly not a costly concrete.
-The use of SCC Concrete in both the precast and
ready-mix markets in the UK, Europe and the rest of
the world is expected to continue to increase as the
experience and technology improves, the clients
demand a higher-quality finished product and the
availability of skilled labour continues to decrease.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Concrete should be design to serve its
purpose
Should be durable
Factors that influence durability can be divided into:
the environment and usage factors (outside control)
the compositional and production factors
The environmental and Usage factors
Abrasion
Climatic condition
Atmospheric pollution
Biological attack
Chemical attack
ABRASION
Either of human action
wear and tear of factory or warehouse floor;
movement of machinery, goods, etc.
gradual wear of concrete roads by traffic
Or forces of nature
pounding of the ocean on concrete sea
defenses, jetties, etc.
CLIMATIC CONDITION
All exposed concrete must be able to withstand the extreme
conditions produced by the weather
Cycles of temperature changes, both daily and seasonal,
cause concrete to expand and contract.
Exposed surface hotter or colder than unexposed parts
causing temperature gradients
Durability must also be maintained in conditions of alternate
wetting and drying, extreme of ice and snow.
Due to expansion and contraction caused by these extremes
cracking or spalling may result from such climatic conditions.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
Discoloration of concrete surfaces is mainly the result of
dirt and chemicals in the atmosphere, particularly in town
and industrial areas.
Physical damage can be caused over a considerable
period of time from carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Carbon dioxide reacts with lime compounds resulting in a
white deposit known as carbonation in the surface.
Sulphur dioxide reacts chemically and forms a skin on the
concrete surface, which subsequently disintegrates.
BIOLOGICAL ATTACK
Good quality dense concrete is also best defense against
the growth of moulds or plant life as lichens.
The described growth may enter concrete pores and
cause surface disintegration.
CHEMICAL ATTACK
A very common type of chemical attack is from sulphates
in soil and groundwater. (This is most important due to the
fact that nearly all structures employ some concrete below
ground level).
Sulphates react chemically causing expansion and
disruption of the concrete.
Sea water is another source of chemical attack (sulphates
and magnesium)
Durability should be maximised by choosing a type of
cement suitable for the level of sulphate concentration.
Also the concrete is dense so that penetration by
groundwater is minimised.

THE COMPOSITIONAL AND RODUCTION FACTORS

TYPES OF CEMENT
Defence for chemical attack should be chemical in nature
BS 8110: Part 1, recommends in Table 6.1, the type of
cement to use for various concentration of sulphates in soil
and groundwater
OPC and GGBS may be used where sulphate
concentrations are low
As concentrations are progressively higher, sulphate
resisting portland cement, supersulphated cement, or high
alumina cement may be used.
TYPES OF AGGREGATE
When abrasion resistance is required a dense hard wearing
aggregate should be selected. BS 882 specifies a 10% fines
value of not less than 50 kN for coarse aggregate in ordinary
concrete.
Aggregate for concrete wearing surface 10% fines value not
less than 100 kN
If very hard surface is required, a layer of granolithic
concrete is often specified
Aggregates suitable for granolithic are specified in BS 1201
to have a 10% fines value not less than 150 kN and are
required to crushed rock of one of several hard materials
including granite.
Some aggregates are to be avoided due to its chemical
reaction with cement known as alkali-aggregate reaction. This
reaction causes the aggregate to swell and disrupt the
concrete.
Note: The 10% fine value measure the resistance of
aggregate to crushing
DEGREE OF COMPACTION
Full compaction is very important. Durability drastically
reduced if the concrete contains air voids.

WATER/CEMENT RATIO
Concrete mixed with lowest possible W/C ratio and undergone
full compaction will result in a more durable concrete.
Concrete with no air voids and minimum of pores will give:
maximum abrasion resistance
will best prevent chemicals being absorbed
keep out all water which may freeze and expand
provide minimum foothold for organic growths
Table 6.1 BS 8110: Part 1 also specifies max. W/C ratio to give
greater impermeability in facing sulphates.
CEMENT CONTENT
To produce a dense impermeable concrete with a low W/C
ratio, increase cement content to maintain workability
Refer to Table 6.1 and 6.2,BS 8110: Part 1
AIR CONTENT
Airentrainment is used to improve the resistance of concrete
to frost damage and to protect from harmful effects of de-icing
salts in winter
Air entraining agent produced 4%-7% air content by volume of
fresh concrete.
The minute bubbles work in two ways:
bubbles break capillary path preventing moisture from being
attracted inwards.
the bubbles form a cushion which absorb any expansion of
Water
CURING
Adequate curing is essential to ensure that the concrete will be
durable. Longer curing periods are necessary in colder
conditions.
Refer to Table 6.5: BS 8110: Part 1: 1985.

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

One of the main causes of failure in reinforced concrete is the
corrosion of steel
embedded steel rusts, expands and disrupts the concrete
natural process of the rusting of steel needs the present of air and
water
fortunately the hydration of cement results in high levels of
alkalinity. The concrete therefore provides good protection as long
as:
concrete must be dense and well compacted
water/cement ratio should be as low as possible
adopt minimum cement content specified by the code
do not use admixture of chloride base. chloride reduce alkalinity
and increases rate of corrosion (Table 6.4, BS 8110).
sea-water should not be used for reinforced concrete
sea-dredged aggregate aggregates should be well washed
reinforced road slabs should be air-entrained
cracking of the concrete must be minimized and controlled by
good mix design and site control of the concrete, and by design and
careful location of the reinforcement.
concrete cover should be adequate. The cover should at least be
equal to the diameter of the biggest bar (Table 3.4, 4.8 BS)
FIRE RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE
Concrete has a high resistance to fire because both the matrix and
aggregates are incombustible
Concrete has a very low thermal conductivity, hence often used for
fire protection
concrete first undergoes thermal expansion under intense heat.
Slowly disintegration occurs unless differential expansion of the
aggregates causes spalling.
Degree of resistance mainly dependent on the type of aggregate.
Materials containing silica such as flints, gravels or granite will
expand at extremely high temperature and causes spalling.
Spalling normally not occur when limestone and lightweight
aggregates are used Refer to Section 4, BS 8110: Part 2 contains
several tables required by concrete for fire resistance.

Concrete cover provides protection in the event of fire.

Mandatory minimum periods of fire resistance are
stipulated in The Building Regulations.
Steel loses strength, as it becomes hotter. It is important
for all structural members to have sufficient protection for
the steel to prevent collapse.
Walls and floors within the minimum time period during
fire;
should not crack and allow flame to pass through also
they must resist the passage of heat sufficiently to prevent
combustion of goods the other side
Thickness of cover varies from 15 to 65 mm depending on
the member type, aggregate type and fire resistance
requirement.
For prestressed members, the range is from 15 to 100 mm
cover. Thicker cover is required for siliceous aggregate than
for lime stone aggregate. When cover of siliceous aggregate
concrete exceeds 40 mm, a supplementary reinforcing
fabric not lighter than 0.5 kg/m2 is needed, within the cover,
to keep the spalling in check.
Lightweight aggregate concrete gives a better thermal
protection so lower minimum cover thickness is needed.
In addition to cover figures, BS 8110: Part 2, gives minimum
element thickness for the different aggregates and periods
of fire resistance.

TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CONCRETE

Transport Mechanisms : Basic Consideration

The rate, extent and effect of the transport are largely
dependent on the
pore structure and cracks and on the microclimate at the
concrete surface.
The pore structure and crack configuration, and the filling
of pores and cracks with water, are determining factors in
respect of the transport of water and gaseous and
dissolved substances.
In the event of chemical binding mechanisms being
involved, the chemical composition of the cement and the
properties of aggregates are also important

Combined transportation of heat, moisture and chemicals, both

within the concrete mass and in exchange with the surroundings
(the microclimate), and the parameters controlling
the transport mechanisms, constitute the principal elements of
durability.
Water or moisture is most important factor controlling the
various deterioration processes.
The transport of water within the concrete is determine by the
pore type, size and distribution and by cracks.
The performance over time whether due to initial good
quality, or to repeated repair of a not so good structure may be
term the service life of the structure (Fig. 1.2)

Pore Structure of Concrete

In addition to microclimate, permeation is decisively
influenced by the pore structure of the cement paste.
For characterization of the open pore structure,
two materials will be of importance:
open porosity (pores which are interconnected)
and
pore size distribution (particularly influences the
rate of the transport).
>> The size of pores varies in magnitude. According to
origin and characteristics, the pores are described as
compaction pores, air pores, capillary pores or gel pores
more conveniently classified as macropores, capillary
pores and micropores (Fig. 2.2).
>>The capillary pores and macropores are
relevant to durability.

Interaction Between Pores and Water

In cement paste pores, surface energy causes the water
vapour molecules within the pores to adsorb onto the pore
surface.
The thickness of the water film depending on the degree of
humidity within the pores

Relationship between relative humidity of ambient air and

concrete, relative to saturation

Diffusion through a porous material. The driving force is the

difference between c1 and c2, where these are the
concentrations (or partial pressures or pressures) of water,
carbon dioxide, oxygen, chloride ions and so on
Permeability of gases in concrete will decrease
considerably with growing water content and, in the case of
an almost water-saturated concrete, the diffusion of gases
(CO2, O2) practically negligible

Transport Mechanisms in Humid Air

Diffusion processes are induced by the tendency for
differences in concentrations to equilibrate (Fig. 2.5)

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the concrete due to a chemical

reaction between the carbon dioxide and the concrete developing at
the pore walls, which causes the concentration within the pores to
be reduced
A similar process applies with oxygen when it is consumed during
corrosion of reinforcement
Diffusion of water or water vapour will always take place when the
ambient humidity changes or when the concrete is drying out
Transport Mechanisms: Rain and Splash Water
In the case of wetting of concrete surfaces (rain and splash water),
water transport is of major importance
Because of Capillary suction, saturation will quickly achieved

Capillary suction
caused by surface
energy, for the vertical
capillary shown here,
the rise in water level
H=15/r mm, where r is
the radius of the pore

Model of pores in concrete

affected by rain

Changing wetting and drying of the surface layer

Water absorbed by concrete through capillary suction at a
considerably higher rate than it is disposed of by evaporation
Transport Mechanisms: Immersion
In the case of continuously immersed structures large
quantities of water may, under unfavourable conditions, be
transported
The penetration of water will first take place by capillary
suction, accelerated by increased hydraulic pressure
The intensity of this water transport depends on the
relationship between evaporation, capillary suction and hydraulic
pressure
1=water transport by hydraulic
pressure and capillary suction
2=transport of water and dissolved
agents

3=evaporation of water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone

1=water transport by
hydraulic pressure
and capillary suction
2=transport of water
and dissolved agents
3=evaporation of
water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone
1=water transport by
hydraulic pressure and
capillary suction
2=transport of water
and dissolved agents
3=evaporation of water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone
Along with the water, dissolved agents (carbonates,
chlorides and sulphates) will be transported
Mechanisms of Fluid Transmission in Concrete
Absorption (capillary suction): Concrete takes
in a liquid normally water by capillary
attraction
The rate of water enter is term absorptivity
Absorptivity = ( capillary size, capillary
interconnection, moisture gradient )
Diffusion: A vapour, gas or ion can pass
through concrete under the action of
concentration gradient
The rate of agent enter is term diffusivity

 Diffusivity = (concentration gradient, degree of reaction of

agent with hydrate structure, capillary size and interconnection)
Permeability (Hydraulic pressure): flow property of concrete,
fluid will pass through under the action of pressure differential
Permeability = (pressure, capillary size and interconnection)
Transportation process are influenced by a large number of
material and environmental parameters
Exposure
zone
atmospheric

splash
tidal

Primary transport
mechanism
Gas diffusion
Water vapour diffusion

Water vapour diffusion

Ionic diffusion
Water vapour diffusion
Water absorption
Ionic diffusion

submerged

Ionic diffusion
Water permeability

PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN CONCRETE

True improved performance of structures is hard to achieve by
improving the material characteristic alone because of complex
nature of environment. Other factors that considered necessary
are:
the elements of architectural and structural design,
process of execution, and inspection and
maintenance procedure, incl. preventive maintenance.
CRACKING
Cracking will occur whenever the tensile strain concrete is
subjected, exceeds the tensile strain capacity of the concrete.
a. Movement generated within the concrete.
Examples: drying shrinkage, expansion or contraction due to
temperature change, and plastic settlement or shrinkage.- if the
movements are restrained.
b. Expansion of material embedded in within
the concrete. Example: corrosion of reinforcement
c. Externally imposed conditions.
Examples: loading or deformations imposed by differential
settlement of foundations

Fig 3.7: Plastic shrinkage cracks in the surface of concrete

pavements and continuous floor slabs

Plastic Shrinkage and Plastic settlement Cracking

There are two distinct types of plastic cracking:
Plastic shrinkage cracking, which most commonly occurs in
slabs and
Plastic settlement or slump cracking, which may occur in
deep members. Both types are associated with bleeding of the
concrete.
Plastic shrinkage is a characteristic property of green
concrete. It is caused by capillary tension in the pore water.
Plastic shrinkage cracking occurs within the first 2-4h after
mixing, if the loss by vapourization exceeds the supply by
bleeding water, thereby activating capillary forces in the pore
water (Fig 3.6)
Parallel cracks in slabs at an angle of about 45o to the slab
corners are typical; the crack spacings are irregular and fall in
the range 0.2 - 1m (Fig 3.7). Figure 3.7 also shows another
typical kind of cracking, known as map cracking.

Plastic shrinkage mostly surface cracks, but in a few cases they

can penetrate a whole slab. Typical crack widths are of the order
of 2- 3mm.
If settlement of concrete is hampered by the reinforcement or
by the formwork, cracking can occur.

Fig. 3.8: Such cracks are longitudinal

Fig. 3.9-a: following the direction

of reinforcement on the top of
deep beams or thick slabs

 Fig. 3.10: Horizontal settlement cracking

may occur when the reinforcing bars are
closely spaced
These cracks cause delamination of the concrete cover on
the top layer of the reinforcement.
In unfavourable situations the bottom cover may also
delaminate, creating the risk of unexpected spalling of the
concrete cover.
Cracking Caused by Direct Loading
-Cracking caused by direct loading resulting from normal load
effect (bending, shear, tension, etc) applied to sections.
>>section containing bonded reinforcement arranged
perpendicular to the expected direction of the principal tensile
stress, cracking is small (<0.5mm) under service loads.
>>closely-spaced cracks as obtained from laboratory tests not
normally found in practice. Actual service loads are rarely high
enough to generate cracks.

where wide load-induced cracks are found, they are almost

always an indication that the calculations for the ultimate limit
state are incorrect.
Cracking may also result from overstressing the concrete
locally
Examples are: cracking due to excessive bond
stresses leading to cracking along the line of the bar.

 Cracking due to concentrated loads such as those beneath

anchorages of prestressing tendons leading to cracking parallel to
the direction of the applied compression.
Cracking resulting from imposed deformations.
Cracking resulting from temperature, shrinkage or differential
settlement of foundations. Stresses and hence cracking, can
arise where the structure, or a member or part of a section,
resists the imposed movement.
Cracking due to early thermal movements was once commonly
diagnosed as shrinkage cracking.
The hydration heat of cement, cannot be passed on rapidly to
the surrounding air by the concrete surface. A temperature
gradient develops, (Fig.3.12).
A condition of self-equilibrating stresses is created, with tensile
stresses in the outer layers and compressive stresses in the core.
If the tensile stresses exceed the still low tensile strength of
hardening of concrete, cracks are formed (Fig. 3.13). The cracks
are always surface cracks, mostly in the form of map cracking.

If a structural element is stressed, especially by axial or

eccentric tension, partition cracks are formed which
penetrate the whole cross-section of the element. (Fig. 3.14)
e.g. for cellars, tank constructions or abutments are placed
on already hardened foundations.

Shrinkage is the load independent, longterm

deformation of concrete because of its decrease in volume
due to drying.
If the shortening of a structural element due to shrinkage is
restrained from the outside, axial or eccentric forces develop,
producing separation cracks if the ultimate strain of
concrete is exceeded.
Differential shrinkage between the surface layer and the
core causes a state of equilibrating stresses to develop
between surface and core
Surface cracking caused by shrinkage is mostly map
cracking and is frequently undistinguishable from cracking
due to temperature (Fig. 3.13).

 Shrinkage is partially reversible and, where there is an increase

in humidity, significant swelling can occur.
Shrinkage movements are not confined only to the early life of
the structure.
A drop in relative humidity at any time during the life of a
structure can be the cause of significant movements and crack
development.
Cracking due to settlement of foundations mainly affects nonstructural elements, such as partitions, infill panels, windows and
doors.
Alignment of cracks relative to the reinforcement
The importance of cracking relative to the durability and service
life - influenced by whether or not cracks are longitudinal with the
reinforcement (Fig. 3.15).
This is especially important from the point of corrosion of
reinforcement. Bond and shear strength could be reduced by the
development of longitudinal cracks.

Cracks will form along the line of the transverse

reinforcement present, such bars may act as crack initiators
(Fig. 3.15).
Plastic shrinkage cracks may, follow the line of the
reinforcement. This is true of plastic settlement cracks
(slump), where the cracks are often directly caused by the
bars.
Influencing parameters
The important parameters determine whether cracking is
detrimental to concrete structures, are related to;
the detailing of the structural form and of the reinforcement,
to the selection of concrete composition, and
to the type and quality of execution and curing.
Structural detailing
Abrupt changes of geometry such as depth or crosssectional area cause differential plastic settlement leading to
cracking, or induce local stress concentrations which sooner
or later may create cracks.
Examples: ribbed slabs, trough sections, waffle slabs or
voided slabs.
Detailing of reinforcement
Reinforcement may initiate cracks either where
concentrated forces are transmitted to the concrete or where
the reinforcement unfavourably influences the placing and
setting of the concrete.
Concentrated forces occur at:
sharp bends, at curtailed reinforcement,
at laps, in zones with high bond stresses,
near anchorages for pre-stressing tendons and so on.

Concrete composition
Concrete composition mainly influences the plastic shrinkage
and settlement cracking, which depends on the bleeding of the
concrete
Bleeding can be diminished and even avoided:
carefully selecting the grading of the aggregates,
choosing a blended cement, and
using plasticing or superplasticing admixtures
Execution and curing
The workmanship associated with the execution process has a
decisive influence on the homogeneity and uniformity of cast
concrete as well as on the correct placement of the
reinforcement.
The concrete cover to the reinforcement and the quality of the
outer surface layer of the concrete are basic parameters
influencing the subsequent resistance to an aggressive
environment.
Cracking developed during the execution process and during
the initial period of hardening may be the main initial cause for a
later acceleration of deleterious actions which depend on water
or aggressive substances (Carbon dioxide, acids and sulphates)
entering from the outside through the outer concrete layer.
FROST AND DE-ICING AGENTS
Deterioration Mechanisms
Transition from water to ice involves an increase in volume by
9%, this will cause splitting of concrete.
Due to the wide range of pore radii of cement paste, only
about one third of the pore water will be frozen at a temperature
of 30oC and only two thirds will be frozen at 60oC.
A thin film of water coating the pore surfaces will remain even
after the pore water has formed ice (Fig. 3.16).

Transition from water to ice in porous systems is likely to

cause a relatively large quantity of water to evaporate, if
ambient conditions (e.g. air) and the degree of saturation of
the concrete allows (this will not occur in completely watersaturated concrete) (Fig. 3.17).

 Another consequence of the surface energy is a hydraulic

under-pressure that develops in the smaller pores during
cooling, inducing the diffusion of water not yet frozen from
the smaller pores to the larger ones in the concrete (Fig.
3.18).
Diffusion
during cooling

Effect of de-icing agents

The application of de-icing agents to a concrete surface covered
with ice will cause a substantial drop in temperature at the
concrete surface (temperature shock) during thawing of the ice.
The difference in temperature between the surface area and the
interior of the concrete gives rise to a state of internal stresses
likely to induce cracking in the region (the outer layer) (Fig. 3.20).
Distribution of tensile strain
in concrete experienceing
thermal shock at the surface
due to the effects of
chlorides

Critical saturation and the effect of air-entrainment

Sufficient quantity of pores not filled with water should be
available to allow the water to expand, thus preventing damage
by frost.
The limit value of the water content causing damage to occur
is defined by the critical degree of saturation.
This depends primarily on
(a) the age of concrete
(b) pore size distribution (including artificial air pores)
(c) environmental conditions
(d) the rate of cooling and frequency of freezing
and thawing cycles
(e) drying out between freezing and thawing
cyclesand thawing cycles
(e) drying out between freezing and thawing
Cycles
Artificial air pores may be defined as quasi-closed pores. They
are not filled with water even in the case of saturated concrete.
However, by diffusion processes during freezing of water they
may well be reached by the water forming ice and are thus
available as expansionspace (Fig. 3.19).

Another significant effect is a change in the freezing behaviour

of the pore water due to deicing agents penetrating from the
outside of the concrete (Fig. 3.21).
As explained, the freezing point of the pore water will be lower
when the pore radius is smaller.

Effect of chlorides
on the freezing
properties of pore
water

 Both of the change in temperature and of the change in

content of de-icing agents with increasing distance from the
concrete surface, it may happen that certain concrete layers
suffer freezing at different times (Fig. 3.22). In this case, scaling
may result.
Frost attack should be considered to be more severe in the
presence of de-icing agents. Consequently, to ensure frost
resistance under this circumstances a higher content of air
pores will be required.
Scaling due to variations in the timing of freezing of layers
(a) intermediate layer is initially unfrozen
(b) intermediate layer freezes later, causing scaling

Influencing Parameters
Concrete composition
The frost resistance of the concrete can thereby be
substantially improved;
In the case of a severe frost attack, air entrainment (air pores)
can reduce the relative weight loss to 10- 20% of that of
concrete without air entrainment.
With water cement ratio decreasing and cement content
increasing, the frost resistance of the concrete will increase (Fig.
3.24).
With decrease in the proportion of larger aggregates, an
increase in cement and air content will be required
to arrive at a frost resistance of equal strength.
EROSION
Erosion by Abrasion
Can be caused by
grinding action of pedestrian traffic on floors, scrapping
percussive impact of studded tyres on
Pavements
sliding of loose bulk materials (Figs 3.27).
heavy particles suspended in water (dams, hydroplant, bridge
pier, coastal structures, etc)

Influence of aggregates
Aggregates that are not frost-resistant will absorb water that
expands during freezing and destroys the cement paste.
Typical indications of such processes are local spallings above
larger-sized aggregates (pop-outs)

Erosion by Cavitation
If water without solids is flowing rapidly parallel to a limiting
surface, any change in geometry of the surface causes a flow
detachment and zones of low pressure at the limiting surface.
If the static pressure of streaming water becomes lower than
the vapour pressure of water, vapour filled bubbles develop in
this zone.
If the bubbles stream to zones where the static pressure
exceeds the vapour pressure of water, vapour condenses in the
bubbles and the bubbles collapse suddenly.

 This impolsion causes impact and pressure waves to process is called

cavitation, and results in damage similar to pitting and excavations.
Cavitation or similar impact and pressure waves occur when water hits
limiting surfaces with a high velocity. Right-angled surfaces constitute
an extreme case of this.
DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF DEFORMATION:
Elastic Deformation Instantaneous; Dependent on Applied Stress .
Drying Shrinkage Long Term, Independent of Stress.
Creep Long term; Dependent on Stress.
The NUMERICAL values dependent on: Environment; Age of Concrete;
Mix proportions; Constituent materials.
Additionally, like other materials, Concrete is subjected to EXPANSION &
CONTRACTION with changes in TEMPERATURE.
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (Ec): Primarily related to CRUSHING
STRENGTH of Concrete. Influenced by:
-Elastic Properties of Aggregate Curing
-Conditions
-Concrete Age
-Mix Proportions
-Types of Cement
DRYING SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
-SHRINKAGE results from removal of MOISTURE on drying wet concrete
for the first time.
-SHRINKAGE diminishes in rate after many months or years until
concrete reaches moisture EQUILIBRIUM with the environment.
-SHRINKAGE is dependent on the amount of drying taking place & thus is
INFLUENCED by:
i. Humidity.
ii. Temp of the surrounding air.
iii. Rate of air flow over the concrete surface.
iv. Concrete surface area to volume ratio.
SHRINKAGE value is INCREASED by carbonation (long term) &
REDUCED by prolonged curing.

CREEP OF CONCRETE
- As for shrinkage, CREEP is time-dependent
phenomenon due to continued application of stress.
-CREEP takes place over many months or even years.
-In general, CREEP strain is proportional to log of
time under load.
-Upon REMOVAL of load, an instantaneous elastic
recovery occurs, and is followed by a
-CREEP OF CONCRETE continuing expansion known
as CREEP recovery.
-CREEP recovery is usually about 1/3 of the original
creep strain.
SUMMARY
(1) Effect of SHRINKAGE & CREEP on structural
behaviour:
-Continued deflection (excessive deflection) d
Span/250.
-Cracking Partition, cladding panel, floor slabs.
-Durability resistance to freezing & thawing,
corrosion of steel reinforcement.
(2) Factors influencing SHRINKAGE & CREEP:
-SIZE of members (the larger the member the smaller
the SHRINKAGE & CREEP)
-ENVIRONMENT (the higher the humidity the lesser
the SHRINKAGE & CREEP).
-STRENGTH of concrete (the higher the strength the
lesser the SHRINKAGE & CREEP).
-Types of aggregate.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN CONCRETE

Chemical Attack on Concrete
Durability of a concrete structure is determined by the rate that
concrete is decomposed as a result of chemical reaction.
A precondition for chemical reactions to take place is the
presence of water in some form (liquid or gas).
-The chemical reactions that may lead to a decrease in quality
are well established.
a.reaction of acids, aluminium salts, magnesium salts and soft
water with the
b. reaction of sulphates with aluminates in concrete
c. reaction of alkalis with reactive aggregates in concrete.
ACID ATTACK
The action of acids on the hardened concrete is the conversion
of the calcium compounds (calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium aluminate hydrate) to the calcium salts
of the attacking acid.
Action of hydrochloric acid leads to the formation of calcium
chloride, which is very soluble.
Action of sulphuric acid gives calcium sulphate, which
precipitate as gypsum.
Nitric acid gives calcium nitrate, which is very soluble.
With organic acids, the result is the same: lactic acid leads to
calcium lactates..
Magnesium and ammonium salts react in the same manner as
the equivalent acids, so
ammonium chloride will react as the free hydrochloric acid
and ammonium nitrate as the free nitric acid.
Soft water merely dissolves the calcium compounds, as do the
acids.
result is, the destruction of the hardened cement. Fundamental
difference between attack by acids and attack by sulphates and
alkalis.
In the acid attack, there is a complete conversion of the
hardened cement, thus destroying the pore system. Acids react
with all the components in cement

With acid attack, the permeability of the sound concrete is

therefore of minor importance.
With the other types of attack, the permeability of the sound
concrete is of the utmost importance.
SULPHATE ATTACK
In contrast to acid attack - sulphate attacks only certain
components in the cement.
Sulphate attack is characterized by the chemical reaction of
sulphate ions with the aluminate component and ions of
sulphate, calcium and hydroxyl of hardened portland cement or
cement containing Portland clinker (as the reactive substances),
forming mainly ettringite and to a lesser extent gypsum.

acid attack

Exposure conditions
Exposure conditions may be modified by the presence of
constituents other than sulphate
An important example of this is the moderating influence of
chloride ions caused by the preferential formation of chloroaluminate (Fridell salt), which does not lead to detrimental
expansion.
Due to this mechanism sea water, which should be classified
as
highly aggressive according to its high sulphate content, is only
moderately aggressive. Therefore, sea water, being of great
importance as an exposure medium.

Sulphate attack

The reaction between these substances, causes expansion of

the concrete, leading to cracking with an irregular pattern (Figs.
4.2, 4.3). This gives easier access to further penetration.
The main parameters influencing the expansion in practice
are:
a. exposure conditions, i.e. severity of attack (amount of
aggressive substance)
b. accessibility, i.e. permeability of concrete (rate of transport)
c. susceptibility of concrete, i.e. type of cement (amount of
reactive substance)
d. amount of water available
Concrete may to some extent be protected against sulphate
attack, either by choosing
a type of cement that is impervious to sulphate attack or
by ensuring a sufficient degree of impermeability.
Generally, cement low in C3A are more resistant to sulfate
attack

Accessibility of concrete
The degree of impermeability needed for concrete to be
sulphate resistant may be expressed as limiting values for depth
of water penetration over a fixed period of time.
For practical purposes, this is often translated into limiting
values for W/C ratio or concrete quality.
Cement type
The different types of cement may be classified according to
their ability to resist sulphate attack.
The American Society for Testing and Materials limits
aluminates to a maximum of 8% for moderate sulphate
resistance (MSR) and to a maximum of 5% for high sulphate
resistance (HSR). In Europe, a limit of 3% is generally accepted
for (high) sulphate resistance.
Recent research has unanimously shown the good behaviour
of blended cement. Several national standards recognize
Portland blastfurnace cement with a minimum of 65% slag as
HSR.
The introduction of the MSR class allows due appreciation of
other blended cement containing granulated slag or other
pozzolanic material, either natural or synthetic (fly ash and silica
fume).

In cases of combined attack, other factors may influence the

choice of cement.
An example is the different behaviour of low alumina Portland
cement and Portland blastfurnace cement with a high slag
content.
Both are HSR, but they have a very different permeability for
chloride ions (as in sea water or due to de-icing salt);
low alumina Portland cement results in the highest
permeability towards chloride ions.
ALKALI ATTACK
Alkali-silica reaction
The mechanism of alkali attack resembles that of sulphate
attack because the attack is only on certain substances in the
concrete.
The difference between sulphate attack and alkali attack is
that the reactive substance in the former case is in the cement,
and in the latter in the aggregates.
The alkaline
solution in concrete
pores is always
lime-saturated and
contains of sodium
and potassium
ions.
Silica-containing
aggregates
attacked by
alkaline solutions,
lead to destructive
expansion

Visible damage starts with (map cracking), followed by complete

disintegration (Fig. 4.5).
General expansion develops in the direction of least resistance.
Other typical manifestations are pop-outs and weeping of glassy
pearls of varying composition
The main parameters influencing the expansion in practice are :a. the reactivity of the aggregate, - the presence
of amorphous or partly crystallized silica
b. the amount and grain size of reactive aggregate
c. alkali and calcium concentrations in the pore water
d. the type of cement (rate of transport)
e. exposure conditions (external)
f. the amount of water available
Alkali-carbonate reaction
Carbonate minerals may also be susceptible to alkaline attack.
In dolomite or magnesium-containing limestone, the reaction
may produce magnesium hydroxide.
This dedolomitization may lead to map cracking, resulting
ultimately in the complete destruction of the concrete.
Susceptibility of Aggregate Alkali-silica reaction.
The presence of reactive silica is one limiting factor. Assessment
of reactivity is difficult, however,
and a method that gives satisfying results for all potential
aggregates under all possible circumstances is not yet available.
Deleteriousness of alkali reaction does not simply increase with
the amount of reactive aggregate;
It is also influenced by cement type and concrete mix.
Furthermore, the deleteriousness is dependent on the grain size
of the reactive material.
Instead of absolute levels of expansion, it may be better to
consider the rate of expansion.

Alkali-carbonate reaction
Assessment of alkali-carbonate reactivity, generally follows the
same lines.
Petrographic distinction of potentially dangerous material is
easily made.
A deleterious degree of expansion is only reached in the
presence of clayey components, possibly expressed as alumina
content.
Alkali Content
As alkali concentration in pore water is a decisive factor, the
alkali content of concrete at any given time is important. The
content of alkalis in cement is expressed as equivalent sodium
oxide (Na2Oeq):
% Na2Oeq = %Na2O + 0.658%K2O
Free alkali is mainly supplied by the cement.
Other sources - influx of alkali-containing water into hardened
concrete
Cement type
Portland cements with limited alkali content are special
cements with respect to alkaliaggregate reactivity, and have
been used as such for many years.
The use of blended cements normally causes
a decrease in both the alkali and the calcium concentration
a decreased permeability.
Exposure conditions
Exposure conditions certainly play a role and may be
responsible for the great difference in rate of deterioration of
concrete.
For concrete design, judgment of aggregates is based on test
results at constant and high humidity. It is known that intermittent
drying and wetting may lead to greater expansion.
A practical implication of influence of exposure is the possibility
of retarding or even preventing a progressing deterioration by
waterproofing the concrete.

REPAIRS AND REMEDIES

Coating and Treatment
Control moisture ingress (protective sheltering, tanking and
coatings, shedding run-off water)
Surface coating (silanes and siloxanes)
Saturate concrete with lithium bearing solution
Strengthening
Complete replacement of structural elements,
or their support by auxiliary construction
SUMMARY
Damage from ASR is unlikely to occur if one or more of
the following conditions obtains
a. The concrete will be in dry environment
b. The alkali content of the cementitious materials is 0.6% or
less and alkalis from other sources do not exceed 0.2 kg/m3
of concrete
c. The mass of alkalis from all sources in the concrete mix is
less than 3.0 kg/m3
d. The fine and coarse agg. are both composed wholly of rock
types which are considered to be non-reactive
e. The combined fine and coarse agg. Contain more than 60%
chert or flint
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CONCRETE
Growth on concrete structures my lead to Mechanical
deterioration
Caused by lichen, moss, algae and roots of plants/trees
penetrating into the concrete at cracks and weak spots resulting
in bursting forces
Such growth may also retain water on the concrete surface,
leading to a high moisture content of the concrete
Furthermore, micro growth may cause chemical attacks by
developing humic acid, which will dissolve the cement paste.

MECHANISM OF CORROSION AND

CORROSION PROTECTION
Processes and effects
Passive film may be destroyed locally or over greater
surface areas due to carbonation or by chloride ions, .

A third mechanism is a reduction of alkalinity due to the leaching

out of alkalis by streaming water.

In practice, this may happen in the region of weak points

of the structure (e.g. leaky construction joints and wide
cracks) in combination with bad concrete quality (gravel
pockets, high W/C ratio).
If the pH of concrete drops below 9 at the reinforcement, or if
the chloride content exceeds a critical value, the passive film
and the corrosion protection will be lost.

Reinforcement corrode, if sufficient moisture and oxygen are

available.

Corrosion of reinforcement
The corrosion process can be separated as cathodic and then
anodic process (Fig. 6.3)
anodic process - dissolution of iron. Positively charged irons
ions pass into solution
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-

Cathodic Process - The surplus electrons in the steel will

combine at the cathode with water and oxygen to form hydroxyl

ions
2e- + 1/2O2 + H2O = 2(OH)-