Rediana Murti Novia

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1.1 Flat Mirror
The nature of images that are produced by flat mirrors
can be summarized as follows :
* The images are upright (same as the objects)
* The images have the same size as the objects
* The distance of the objects to the mirror is equal to
the images to the mirrors
* Reflected images are virtual images
 The characteristic of concave
mirror are if the parallel rays hit
the surface of the mirror, the
reflected rays would converge
at a point. This is also called the
focal point (f).
The normal line on every
point on a concave mirror is
called the center of curvature of
a mirror (R).
The relation between focal
length and center of curvature
can be written as :
f = ½R
i) Rays that come in parallel
with the main axis are
reflected through a focal
point
ii) Rays that come through a
focal point are reflected
parallel with the main axis
iii) Rays that come through
the curvature of mirror are
reflected back through
that curvature
 Convex mirrors are curved mirrors that reflect the rays
that come to mirrors outward and seems to come from the
focal point. The parallel rays that come to the convex mirror
are reflected divergently.
i) The rays that come parallel
to the main axis are
diverged. The reflected rays
seem to come from the focal
point
ii) The rays that are come
toward the focal point are
reflected in parallel with the
main axis
iii) The rays that are come
through the curvature are
reflected back through the
curvature
By applying the properties of a concave and convex mirror,
the image of an object can be drawn easily. There is a
relationship between an object’s position and it’s image,
which are formed. The relation can be written as :
The size of an image that is formed by a mirror can look
larger or smaller than its object. Therefore, we define
linier magnification as a ratio of image and object size.
The linier magnification can be expressed as the following
equation :

s’
s (+)  Object in front of mirrors
s (-)  Object behind of mirror
s’ (+)  Image in front of mirror
s’ (-)  Image behind of mirror
f (-)  Concave mirror
f (+)  Convex mirror
M > 1  Magnified
M < 1  Diminished
 Concave Mirrors
Object position Image Orientation Image Size Type of Image
Larger than 2f Inverted Diminished (smaller) Real
On 2f point Inverted Same size Real
Between f and 2f Inverted Magnified (larger) Real
Less outside f Inverted Infinity Real
Less inside f Upright Infinity Virtual
Between f and 2f Upright Magnified (larger) Virtual
Convex Mirror
Object position Image Orientation Image Size Type of Image
Any position Upright Diminished (smaller) Virtual
 To draw the image that happen in 2 faced set of mirror,
direction of rays are took from an object to the first
mirror, then reflected to the other mirror so can be drawn
the last image from the second mirror. The following
equation :

d = s1‘ + s2 Mtot = M1 x M2
Where :
d = distance between mirror 1 and mirror 2
s1‘ = distance of first image to the first mirror
s2 = distance the second object to the second mirror
Mtot = Total magnification
M1 = Magnification of the first mirror
M2 = Magnification of the second mirror
 Lenses are transparent mediums where one or both
sides are curved mirrors.
The curved surface of the lens causes the light that falls
on the surface of the lens to refract in different directions.
As a result, when light leaves the lens, it gathers in one
spot or spreads in different directions. This is depend on
the curvature of the curvature of the surface of the lens.
 The physical
characteristics of convex lens
are that they are thickest at
the center of their lens and
their edges are thinner than
at their center.

Kinds of Convex Lens

i) The incident rays that are
parallel to the main axis of
the lens are refracted
through the focal point on
the other side of the lens
ii) The incident rays that
come through the focal
point are reflected parallel
to the main axis of the
lens
iii) The incident rays that
come through center of
the lens is transmitted
without refraction
 One of the physical
characteristic of concave
lens are that is thinnest at
the middle of the lens. To
the edge, the lens thickness
increases.
The incident beams that
are parallel to the main axis
are reflected divergently.
They seem to be derived
from the first focal point of
lens.
Kinds of Concave Lens
i) The incident beams that
are parallel to the main
axis are refracted
divergently. They seem to
be derived from the first
focal point of the lens
ii) The rays that come toward
the other focal point are
refracted in a parallel
fashion to the main axis
iii) The incident rays that pass
through the center of the
lens are transmitted
without being refracted
By applying the properties of a concave and convex lens, the
image of an object can be drawn easily. There is a
relationship between an object’s position and it’s image,
which are formed. The relation can be written as :
The size of an image that is formed by a lens can look larger
or smaller than its object. Therefore, we define linier
magnification as a ratio of image and object size. The
linier magnification can be expressed as the following
equation :

s’
s (+)  Object in front of mirrors
s (-)  Object behind of mirror
s’ (+)  Image in front of mirror
s’ (-)  Image behind of mirror
f (+)  Convex lens
f (-)  Concave lens
M > 1  Magnified
M < 1  Diminished
 In optics, the characteristic of lens is usually expressed in
optical power quantity. The greater optical power of the
lens, the closer position of image to the lens.
The optical power of lens is defined as :

1 100
= P (m) = P (cm)
f or f

where P is Optical power (dioptri/D)

 Convex Lens
Object Position Image Orientation Image Size Type of Image
Between lens and f Upright Magnified (larger) Virtual
Between f and 2f Inverted Magnified (larger) Real
Far away (s > 2f) Inverted Diminished (smaller) Real

Concave Lens
Object Position Image Orientation Image Size Type of Image
Any position in front Upright Diminished (smaller) Virtual
of lens
To draw the image that happen
in 2 faced set of lenses,
direction of rays are took
from an object to the first
lens, then refracted to the
other lens, so can be drawn
the last image from the
second lens. The following
equation :
d = s1‘ + s2
Mtot = M1 x M2
Where :
d = distance between mirror 1 and
mirror 2
s1‘ = distance of first image to the first
mirror
s2 = distance the second object to the
second mirror
Mtot = Total magnification
M1 = Magnification of the first mirror
M2 = Magnification of the second
mirror
If that lenses are combined together (d= 0), so that lenses can be
replaced with equivalent lens, by equation :
 If the beam comes perpendicular to the surface of the water, it
enters the water without changing the direction
 If the beam comes to the surface at a different angle, the

propagation line breaks at the surface (boundary between water

and air). The change in the propagation line at the boundary of
two media is known as refraction
Based on the above explanation, we conclude that the refraction
occurs if :
i) The speed of light in two media is different

ii) The propagation line of the incidence light is not perpendicular to

the boundary between two media
The relation between incidence and refractive angles when a light
beam passes through a boundary of two medium is given by
Snell’s Law :
The relation between incidence and refractive angles when a
light beam passes through a boundary of two medium is
given by Snell’s Law :

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
Where
n1  Index of refraction of incident material
sin θ1  Angle of incidence (degrees)
N2  Index of refraction of refractive material
sin θ 2  Angle of refraction (degrees)

v = λ.f
So… n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

n1 v1 λ 2f
n12 = n2 = v2 = λ1f
Apparent Elongation and Apparent Shortening
When we look down into a pool of water from above, the poo
looks less deep than it really is.

n1 n1 h h’

h h’

Apparent Elongation Apparent Shortening

h’ n2 cos θ 2
= x
h n1 cos θ1
n1 n2 n2 n1
 Where :
s
+ s’ = R  n1 : refractive index of
medium 1
 n2 : refractive index of
medium 2
 First Focus  Second Focus

s = f1…..s’ = ∞ s=∞

f1 = (n1/ n2 – n1) x R f2 = (n2/ n2 – n1) x R

 In optics, a thin lens is a lens with a thickness (distance along the
optical axis between the two surfaces of the lens) that is negligible
compared to the foca length l of the lens. Lenses whose thickness is
not negligible are sometimes called thick lenses.
 The thin lens approximation ignores optical effects due to the
thickness of lenses and simplifies ray tracing calculations. It is often
combined with the paraxial approximation in techniques such as
ray transfer matrix analysis.
 The focal length of a lens in air can be calculated from the
lensmaker's equation:[10]
1 1 n1 1 1

s
+ s’ = ( nmedium - 1
)( R1 + R2 )
Where :
f is the focal length of the lens, n is the refractive index of the
lens material, R1 is the radius of curvature of the lens surface
closest to the light source, R2 is the radius of curvature of the
lens surface farthest from the light source, and d is the
thickness of the lens (the distance along the lens axis between
the two surface vertices).
 Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon
that occurs when a ray of light strikes a medium boundary
at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with
respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive
index is lower on the other side of the boundary, no light
can pass through and all of the light is reflected. The
critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the
total internal reflection occurs.
 When light crosses a boundary between materials with
different refractive indices, the light beam will be partially
refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected.
 However, if the angle of incidence is greater (i.e. the ray is closer
to being parallel to the boundary) than the critical angle – the angle of
incidence at which light is refracted such that it travels along the
boundary – then the light will stop crossing the boundary altogether
and instead be totally reflected back internally. This can only occur
where light travels from a medium with a higher [n1=higher refractive
index] to one with a lower refractive index [n2=lower refractive index].
For example, it will occur when passing from glass to air, but not when
passing from air to glass.

n2
sin θc =
n1
 β

β = θ2 + θ3 D = θ1 + θ4 –
where :
β
β : angle of refractor
 A plate of glass with
thickness t. The direction of
the incident beam and the
beam leaving the material at
the opposite surface are the
same, but they are different
in the propagation line. The
propagation lines are parallel For n2 > n1
but one is displaced from the d sin ( θ1 - θ 2 )
other. t =
cos θ 2
Therefore, the
displacement of the
For n1 > n2
propagation line of the
d sin ( θ1 - θ 2 )
refracted beam can be t =
defined : cos θ 2