PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

Why do we study phase

transformations?
ThetensilestrengthofanFeCalloyofeutectoidcompositioncanbe

variedbetween7002000MPadependingontheheattreatmentprocess
adopted.

Thisshowsthatthedesirablemechanicalpropertiesofamaterialcanbe
obtainedasaresultofphasetransformationsusingtherightheattreatment
process.
InordertodesignaheattreatmentforsomealloywithdesiredRT
properties,timeandtemperaturedependenciesofsomephase
transformationscanberepresentedonmodifiedphasediagrams.

phase transformations
Mostphasetransformationsbeginwiththeformationofnumeroussmall
particlesofthenewphasethatincreaseinsizeuntilthetransformationis
complete.
Nucleationistheprocesswherebynuclei(seeds)actastemplatesfor
crystalgrowth.
Homogeneousnucleationnucleiformuniformlythroughouttheparent
phase;requiresconsiderablesupercooling(typically80300C).
Heterogeneousnucleationformatstructuralinhomogeneities(container
surfaces,impurities,grainboundaries,dislocations)inliquidphasemuch
easiersincestablenucleatingsurfaceisalreadypresent;requiresslight
supercooling(0.110C).

Thermodynamics and
kinectics of PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
What does lie underneath the
structure..

phase transformation
PhasetransformationispredominantlycontrolledbyTEMP.But

transformationneverreallystartattransformationtempratheritstarts
atatempmuchbelowthetemppredictedforthetransformationto
occur.

Undercooling:Itisthegapbetweenthetemppredictedforthe

transformationtooccurandthetempatwhichthetransformation
actuallyoccurs.

Supercooling
Duringthecoolingofaliquid,solidification(nucleation)willbeginonly
afterthetemperaturehasbeenloweredbelowtheequilibriumsolidification
(ormelting)temperatureTm.Thisphenomenonistermedsupercooling(or
undercooling.
ThedrivingforcetonucleateincreasesasTincreases
Smallsupercoolingslownucleationratefewnucleilargecrystals
Largesupercoolingrapidnucleationratemanynucleismallcrystals

Nucleationofasphericalsolidparticleinaliquid
ThechangeinfreeenergyG(afunctionoftheinternalenergyand

enthalpyofthesystem)mustbenegativeforatransformationtooccur.

TheAssumethatnucleiofthesolidphaseformintheinterioroftheliquid
asatomsclustertogethersimilartothepackinginthesolidphase
Also,eachnucleusissphericalandhasaradiusr.
Freeenergychangesasaresultofatransformation:1)thedifference
betweenthesolidandliquidphases(volumefreeenergy,GV);and2)the
solidliquidphaseboundary(surfacefreeenergy,GS).

phase transformation
Allotropic/polymorphictransformation:Nochangeincomposition
ofthestructure
Phasetransformation:Changeincrystalstructure+Changein
composition.
Surfacecreationsalwayshinderstheprocessoftransformation.The
newphasealwaystrystocreatethesurface,soenergyneedstobe
supplied.Sovolumefreeenergywilltrytodecreasetheenergybut
surfacefreeenergywilltrytoincreasetheenergy.

Transformingonephaseintoanothertakestime.
Fe

(Austenite)

FCC

Fe C

3
Eutectoid
transformation (cementite)

(ferrite)

(BCC)

G = GS + GV

phase transformation
InthepreviousfigitcanbeobservedthatassoonastheparticlesofA
phaseareformedthefreeenergyofthesystemshoulddecreasethe
newphaseisdevelopedandhaslowerenergythantheBphase.
Fv=Vf
V=Volofthenewcrystal
f=freeenergiesofthenewphase
formationofthenewcrystalislinkedwiththeinterfacebetweenthe
newandinitialphases.
Fs=s
s=surfaceareaofthenewcrystal
=freeenergyperunitarea

phase transformation

phase transformation
Ifratekineticsofphasetransformationisincreasedthenthestructure
willbefinerandthisisindicatedbytheHallPetchequationStatesthat
decreaseingrainsizeandwithfinenessinthestructurethestrengthin
increased.

o=+Ka(1/2)HallPetchEquation
Where,o=Frictionstress
=instress
a=grainsize
K=lockingparameter

Solid state transformation

Duringthesolidstatetransformationstillanotherfactoracting
inhibitingthenucleationtransformationnuclei.
Anewphasealwaysdiffersfromtheinitialoneinitsstructureand
specificvolume.
Sincethetransformationdevelopsanelasticcrystallinemedium,
changeinspecificvolumeshouldcauseandevelopmentinelastic
strainenergyinoneorboththephases.Thisinhibitsthetransformation
andkineticsthefreeenergy.

Solid state transformation

Therefore,thecertainelasticcomponentFelmakesa+ve
contributiontothefreeenergychangeinthesolidstate
transformation

MartensitetransformationtempismuchlowerthanPearlite
transformationtemp??

Tm>>Tp
Reason:Elasticstrainenergy
component
AM leads to volumetric expansion
whichleadstostrainingofthelatticeand
hence a +ve component in the free
energy. To compensate this +ve
component an undercooling is there. So
tempoftransformationissolow.

Nucleation and Growth

Reaction rate is a result of nucleation and growth of crystals.
100
% Pearlite
50 Nucleation
regime

Growth
regime

t50

Nucleation rate increases w/T

Growth rate increases w/ T
log (time)

Examples:

pearlite
colony

T just belowTE
Nucleation rate low
Growth rate is high

T moderately belowTE
Nucleation rate medium
Growth rate is medium

T way belowTE
Nucleation rate high
Growth rate is low
5

FRACTION OF TRANSFORMATION
Fraction transformed depends on time.

Avrami Eqn.
ktn

y 1 e

fraction
transformed

time

Transformation rate depends on T.

activation energy

1
t0.5

Ae Q /RT

Ex: recrystallization of Cu
y (%)
100
50
0
1

r often small:

10

102

104
log (t) min

equil not possible

2

Eutectoid Transformation rate ~ T

Transformation of austenite to pearlite:

For this transformation,

rate increases with ( T)

[Teutectoid T ].

cementite (Fe3C)
Ferrite ()

pearlite
growth
direction

100
% pearlite

Austenite ()
grain
boundary

Diffusion of C
during transformation

600C
(T larger)

50

Carbon
diffusion

650C
675C
(T smaller)

Coarse pearlite formed at higher temperatures relatively soft

Fine pearlite
formed at lower temperatures relatively hard

PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
Based on
Mass
transport

Diffusion less military

Diffusional

transformation

transformation
Change in
composition

No change in
composition

PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
Based on
Order

Ist order nucleation

and growth

2nd order entire

volume transforms

Diffusion-less transformation in solids

Major

phase transformations that occur in solid phase are due to

thermally activated atomic movements
The different types of phase transformation that is possible can be
divided into 5 groups:
Precipitation Transformation
Eutectoid transformation
Ordering reactions
Massive transformation
Polymorphic changes

PrecipitationTransformations:Generallyexpressedas+
whereisametastablesupersaturatedsolidsolution
isastableormetastableprecipitate
isamorestablesolidsolutionwiththesamecrystalstructureas
butcompositionclosertoequilibrium

EutectoidTransformations:Generallyexpressedas+
Metastablephase()replacedbyamorestablemixtureof+
Precipitationandeutectoidtransformationsrequirecompositional
changesintheformationoftheproductphaseandconsequently
requirelongrangediffusion

OrderingTransformations: Generally expressed as

(disordered)
(ordered) .Thesedonotrequirelongrangediffusion

MassiveTranformations: Generally expressed as

Original phase decomposes into one or more new
phases which have
the same composition as the parent phase but
different crystal
structures

PolymorphicTransformations:Typicallyexhibitedbysingle
componentsystemswheredifferentcrystalstructuresarestableover
differenttemperatureranges.E.g.bccfcctransformationinFe

Martensite
T Martensite
bainite
fine pearlite
coarse pearlite
spheroidite
General Trends

Ductility

Strength

PossibleTransformations

Time Temperature
Transformation(TTT) curves

Iron-Iron Carbide phase diagram

Peritectic
L+

Eutectic
L + Fe3C
L

1493C

0.1 %C

L+

Eutectoid
+ Fe3C

1147C

2.06
+ Fe3C

723C

+ Fe3C

0.025 %C

Fe

0.16 0.8

4.3
%C

Fe3C
6.7

WHAT ARE TTT CURVES

T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a

plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time for a steel

alloy of definite composition.
It is used to determine when transformations begin and end
for an isothermal (constant temperature) heat treatment of a
previously austenitized alloy
TTT diagram indicates when a specific transformation
starts and ends and it also shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is
achieved.

Time- Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Curves Isothermal

Transformation
800

Eutectoid temperature

723 Austenite
Eutectoid steel

Pearlite

600

T
Not an isothermal
transformation

Bainite

400

200
100
0.1

Fine

Pearlite + Bainite

500

300

Coarse

Ms

Austenite

Mf
Martensite
1

102
10
t (s)

103

104

105

The dependance of transformation to temperature

and time can be analyzed best using the diagram
below:

2 solid curves are plotted:

one represents the
time required at each
temperature for the
start of the
transformation;
the other is for
transformation
completion.
The dashed curve
corresponds to 50%
completion.
The austenite to pearlite
transformation will
occur only if the alloy is
supercooled to below
the eutectoid
temperature (727C).
Time for process to
complete depends on

WHY TTT CURVE HAS A C- SHAPE

The transformation of austenite doesnot start immediately

on quenching the austenised sample to a constant

temperature bath
Transformation of the austenite to its product occurs after a
definite time interval incubation period
Incubation period is that period in which transformation
doesnot proceed because enough diffusion has not taken
placein austenite for the transformation to start

 Thus the C shape shows that the stability of austenite first

decreases sharply to the minimum then increases again

Thus the rate of austenite transformation is:
Nil at Ac1 temperature (free energy change is 0)
As temperature falls, it first increases and reaches maximum
(free energy change increases with increase in undercooling)
Nucleation rate increases as critical nucleus size decreases
Rate is maximum at nose
Below the nose the rate of increase in the transformation duc to
nucleation rate is ofset by in rate of diffusion at low
temperatures
The rate further decreases with the increase in undercooling
( diffusion rate)
Thus the TTT curve has a characteristic C shape.

Different types of Time- Temperature-Transformation

(TTT) Curves
Three types of curves are there depending on the carbon content of steel:
TTT for hypereutectoid steel
TTT for eutectoid steel
TTT for hypo eutectoid steel

EFFECT OF CARBON ON THE TTT CURVES

Carbon has significant effects on the nature of the TTT

curves
Carbon is an austenite stabilizer
HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS
Ferrite is the nucleating phase on decomposition of
austenite
As carbon increases from 0 to 0.77% :

EUTECTOID STEELS
Have the maximum incubation period

HYPEREUTECTOID STEELS
Cementite is the nucleating phase
As the carbon content increases more than 0.77%:

BAINITE
Ferrite is the nucleating phase
S curve uniformly shifts towards the right in entire

range
Bainite transformation is uniformly retarted

Proeutectoid
cementite starts
to form on this
line

Proeutectoid
phase starts to
form on this line

Temperature oC

A+P

A +F
Ac1
A

Ms

Ms

F+P

Fe3C +A
Fe3C +P

Ms

Ms
Pearlite reaction starts

TTT curves for hypo , eutectoid and hyper-eutectoid

steels

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON THE TTT

CURVES
All alloying elements (except Co) shift the S curve to the right
Austenite stabilizers move the curve to the right( Mn, Ni,etc)
Carbide formers shift the S curve further to the right because:
Diffusion of alloying elements is too slow(substitutional

elements)
Diffusion of carbon is slower as carbide formers donot easily
part with the carbon
Allotropic change
is reduced by solutes
Bainitic transformation is lesser affected ( no redistribution of
alloying elements)

EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE ON THE TTT CURVES

All decomposition products of austenite nucleate

heterogenously at grain boundaries

Thus incubation period is reduced for fine grained

steel
S curve is more towards the left in fine grained steel

MARTEMPERING
To avoid residual stresses generated during quenching
Austenized steel is quenched above Ms (20-30oC above Ms i.e.

180 250oC)
Holding in salt bath for homogenization of temperature across
the sample (large holding time is avoided to avoid forming
bainite)
The steel is then quenched in air and the entire sample
transforms simultaneously
Tempering follows
The process is called Martempering
The process is beneficial as:
Steep temperature gradient is minimized
Thermal and structural stresses are minimal
More retained austenite lesser volume change

Figure shows the process of Martempering and the

characteristic temperatures:
800

Eutectoid temperature

723
Austenite

Pearlite

600
+ Fe3C

Pearlite + Bainite

500
400

Martempering300

Bainite
Ms

200
Mf
100

Martensite
0.1

10

102
t (s)

103

104

105

AUSTEMPERING
To avoid residual stresses, distortion and cracks generated during

quenching in high carbon steels

Austenized steel is quenched in molten salt bath above Ms
(300oC 400oC)
Held long enough for isothermal transformation to lower Bainite
No tempering is done
This process is termed as Austempering
Equalization of temperature across cross-section minimizes the
stress development
The steels should have sufficient hardenability to avoid
trasformation to pearlite during quenching and holding
Steels shouldnot have a long bainitic bay ( to avoid long
transformation times)

 Advantages:
Improved ductility with same hardness
Elimination of distortion and cracks
No tempering required
Impact strength is improved
Uniformity in properties
High endurance limit
800

Eutectoid temperature

723
Austenite

Pearlite

600
+ Fe3C

Pearlite + Bainite

500
400
300

Austempering

Bainite
Ms

200
Mf
100

Martensite
0.1

10

102
t (s)

103

104

105

HOW TO DRAW TTT CURVE

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT)

Isothermal heat treatments are not the most practical due to rapidly
cooling and constant maintenance at an elevated temperature.
Most heat treatments for steels involve the continuous cooling of a
specimen to room temperature.
TTT diagram (dotted curve) is modified for a CCT diagram (solid curve).
For continuous cooling, the time required for a reaction to begin and end is
delayed.
The isothermal curves are shifted to longer times and lower temperatures.

 In the above figure Moderately rapid and slow cooling curves are
superimposed on a continuous cooling transformation diagram of a eutectoid
iron-carbon alloy.
The transformation starts after a time period corresponding to the
intersection of the cooling curve with the beginning reaction curve and ends
upon crossing the completion transformation curve.
Normally bainite does not form when an alloy is continuously cooled to
room temperature; austenite transforms to pearlite before bainite has become
possible
The austenite-pearlite region (A---B) terminates just below the nose.
Continued cooling (below Mstart) of austenite will form martensite

 For continuous cooling

of a steel alloy there exists
a critical quenching rate
that
represents
the
minimum rate of quenching
that will produce a totally
martensitic structure.
This curve will just miss
the nose where pearlite
transformation begins

 Continuous cooling diagram for a 4340 steel alloy and several cooling
curves superimposed in the figure below
This demonstrates the dependence of the final microstructure on the
transformations that occur during cooling.
Alloying elements used to modify the critical cooling rate for
martensite are
chromium,
nickel,
molybdenum
manganese
silicon
tungsten

Effect of adding other

elements
4340 Steel

Other elements (Cr, Ni, Mo, Si and

W) may cause significant changes
in the positions and shapes of the
TTT curves:
Change transition temperature;
Shift the nose of the austenite-topearlite transformation to longer
times;
Shift the pearlite and bainite noses
to longer times (decrease critical
cooling rate);
Form a separate bainite nose;

Plain carbon steel: primary

alloying element is carbon.

nose
plain
carbon
steel

An actual isothermal heat treatment curve on the

isothermal transformation diagram:

rapid cooling

isothermal treatment

Eutectoid iron-carbon alloy; composition, Co = 0.76 wt% C

Begin at T > 727C

Rapidly cool to 625C and hold isothermally.

AUSTENITE
from where it all starts..

AUSTENITE
Austenite, also known as gamma phase iron (-Fe),

is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid

solution of iron with carbon.
It has an FCC crystal structure
The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite is 2.13
% at 1147oC

Why is Austenizing So
Important
Heat Treatment of
Austenite can In
transform into various products
depending
on the composition and cooling
Any
Steel?
rates.

Morphology of parent austenite(grain size)

decides the morphology of products and thus

its properties.

Formation of Austenite
Austenite is formed on heating an aggregate of pearlite, pearlite

and ferrite , pearlite and cementite

Pearlite
Austenite
Eutectoid composition transforms at a particular (Ac1)
temperature
1st step: ( On heating to eutectoid temperature)
Lattice changes
BCC iron (-Fe)
FCC iron (-Fe)
2nd step:
Diffusion of carbon from Cementite (6.67% carbon) to adjoing
regions
o Inspite of the carbon gradient the structure is thermodynamically
stable at room temperature due to the low diffusion rate of carbon
at low temperatures and occurs only at sufficiently high
temperatures

 The maximum diffusion of carbon takes place from cementite

at ferrite cementite interface

Austenite nucleates at interfaces between ferrite and
cementite, specially in between pearlitic colonies
By gradual dissolution of carbon from cementite austenite is
formed
The primary austenite formed dissolve the surrounding ferrite
and grow at their expense.
The growth rate of austenite is higher than the rate of
dissolution of cementite
Thus dissolution of ferrite is complete before that of cementite
-Fe

Fe3C

Fe3C

-Fe

Austenite

Homogenization of austenite
The austenite formed from cementite and

ferrite is generally not homogenous

Homogenization requires high
temperature/time , or both
High temperatures if the rate of heating is
faster
Shorter time spread over a large range of
temperatures if the rate of heating is
slower

Kinetics of Austenite
Formation

The formation of austenite on heating occurs

by nucleation and growth

The factors that affect nucleation rate or
growth rate affect the kinetics of the
transformation
The kinetics depends on:
Transformation temperature and holding time
Rate of heating
Interface between ferrite and cementite
Grain size
Nature of the alloying elements present

 Transformation Temperature
Austenite transformation occurs at a temperature higher than Ac1

in the Fe-Cementite phase diagram Superheating

Equilibrium temperatures are raised on heating and lowered on
cooling ( free energy should be negative)
The rate of austenite formation increases with increase in
temperature as it increases the rate of carbon diffusion and the free
energy is more negative
Interdependence of time and temperature :
Transformation takes a shorter time at higher temperatures of
transformation and vice versa

Rate of heating :
For higher rates of heating, transformation

starts at higher temperatures and for

slower rates, at lower temperatures
For any rate of heating transformation
occurs over a range of temperature
For transformation at a constant
temperature, heating rate should
extremely slow
Special note:
Austenite transformation starts as soon
as the eutectoid temperature is reached,
but the region in between the curves
indicates the majority of the tranformation.

Interface between ferrite and cementite

Higher the interfacial area faster is the tranformation
Interfacial area can be increased by:
Decreasing the inter-lamellar spacing between ferrite
and cementite
The closer the ferrite cementite lamellae, the higher
is the rate of nucleation.
Carbon atoms have to diffuse to smaller distances
from cementite to low carbon regions to form austenite
Increasing the cementite or carbon content
This will lead to more pearlite content in steels and
thus more interfaces.
Examples :
1. High carbon steels austenize faster than low
carbon steels
2. Tempered martensite structure austenizes faster
than coarse paerlite
3. Spheroidal pearlite takes longer time to austenize
due to very low interfacial area

Grain size
The coarser the parent grain size the

slower is the transformation rate

This is because in larger grains the
interfacial area is lesser
The smaller is the parent grain size the
faster is the transformation to austenite

Nature of the alloying elements

present
Alloying elements in steel are present as
alloyed cementite or as alloy carbides
Alloy carbides dissolve much more slowly
than alloyed cementite or cementite
The stronger the alloy carbide formed the
slower is the rate of formation of
austenization
Diffusion of substitutional alloying
elements is much slower than the
interstitial element, carbon
Thus the rate of austenization depends on
the amount and nature of alloying element

Why does the Fe-Cementite diagram show a fall in

the Ac3 temperature and rapid rise in Acm
temperature with increasing carbon percentage?

In hypoeutectoid steels, austenisation process

takes place rapidly as carbon content

increases.
As carbon percentage increases, the amount of

pearlite increases, which increases the

interfacial area between ferrite and cementite
Thus Ac3 temperature line decreases
continuously with increasing carbon content

In hypereutectoid steels , austenization

process becomes much more difficult as

the amount of carbon increases
Austenisation of free cementite needs very

high temperature as it involves the diffusion

of large amount of carbon( from cementite)
to become homogenous
Thus as carbon content increases, amount of
free cementite increases, which needs higher
temperature to austenize.
Thus Acm line is so steep

Austenite Grain Size

Original grain size- size of austenite

grains as formed after nucleation and

growth
Actual grain size size of the austenitic
grains obtained after homogenization at
higher temperatures
Generally grain size is referred to as
actual grain size
Depending on the tendency of steel to
grain growth, steels are classified into
two groups:
Inherently fine grained
Inherently coarse grained

 Inherently fine grain steels resist grain growth with increasing

Grain size

temperature till 1000oC 1050oC

Inherently coarse grain steels grow abruptly on increasing
temperature
On heating above a certain temperature T1 inherently fine
grain steels give larger grains than inherently coarse grain
steels

Inherently coarse grain

Inherently fine grain

Presence of ultramicroscopic particles like oxides,

carbides and nitrides present at grain boundaries

prevent grain growth in inherently fine grain steels
till very high temperatures
They act as barriers to grain growth
Steels deoxidized with Al or treated with B,Ti and V
are inherently fine grained
At temperatures above T1,dissolution of
ultramicroscopic particles cause sudden increase in
grain size
Thus inherently fine grain steels can be hot worked
at high temperatures without getting coarsened

Effect of grain size on mechanical properties

Austenite grain size plays a very important role in

determining the properties of the steel

The effect of grain size on different properties are given
below:
YIELD STRESS
The dependence is given by Hall-Petch equation :

Where

is the yield stress

is the frictional stress opposing motion of
dislocation

K is the extent to which dislocations are piled at

barriers

D is the avg grain diameter

 Grain refinement improves the strength and ductility at the same

time
IMPACT TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
Increase in grain size raises the impact transition temperature, so

more prone to failure by brittle fracture

 CREEP STRENGTH
Coarse grained steel has better creep strength above

equicohesive temperature
Below this fine grain structure have better creep strength
FATIGUE STRENGTH
Fine grained steel have higher fatigue strength
HARDENABILITY
Coarse grained steels have higher hardenability
(smaller grain boundary area in coarse grained structure gives

less sites for effective diffusion, so martensite formation on

cooling is favoured)

MACHINABILITY
Coarse grain structure has better machinability due to ease in

discontinuos chip formation(low toughness)

PEARLITIC TRANSFORMATION

Pearlite
Itisacommonmicroconstituentofavarietyofsteelswhereisincreases

thestrengthofsteeltoasubstantialextent.

Uniquemicroconstituentformedwhenausteniteinironcarbonalloysis

transformedisothermallyatorbelowtheeutectoidtemp(723K)

Oneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofaustenitetopearlitetransformation

isthatthetrproductconsistsofentirely2diffphase.

Consistsofalternateplatesofferriteandcementiteandthecontinuous

phaseisferrite.

Pearlite
FerritehasaverylowcarboncontentwhereascementiteFe3Cis

anintermetalliccompoundofironwith6.67wt%ofcarbon.

Namepearliteisrelatedtothefactthatwhenitispolishedand

etchedthenthestructurerevealsthecolorfulnessofthemother
ofpearl
Ferriteandcementitearepresenthereintheratio8:1.

Transformation rate ~ T
Transformation of austenite to pearlite:

For this transformation,

rate increases with ( T)

[Teutectoid T ].

cementite (Fe3C)
Ferrite ()

pearlite
growth
direction

100
% pearlite

Austenite ()
grain
boundary

Diffusion of C
during transformation

600C
(T larger)

50

Carbon
diffusion

650C
675C
(T smaller)

Coarse pearlite formed at higher temperatures relatively soft

Fine pearlite
formed at lower temperatures relatively hard

 The layer thickness depends on temperature at which the isothermal

transformation occurs. For example at T just below the eutectoid,
relatively thick layers of both ferrite and cementite phases are
produced. This structure is called coarse pearlite. At lower T, diffusion
rates are slower, which causes formation of thinner layers at the
vicinity of 5400C. This structure is called fine pearlite.

MORPHOLOGY

Morphology
Itisalamellarstructurewithcementiteandferrite.
Thecementiteandferritearepresentinadefiniteratioof8:1.
Eachferriteplateinthepeariltelamellisasinglecrystaland

someneighbouringplatesinasinglecolonyhaveapproximately
thesameorientationoflattice.Thisholdsforthecementitealso.
Ingeneral,bothsidesofthelineofdiscontinuityinapearlite
colonymakeasmallangleinlatticeorientationwitheachother.
Intheferriteregionneartheboundaryofpearlitecoloniesor
grains,therearenetworksofdislocationsordislocationwalls,at
eachnodeofwichacementiterodispresent.

MECHANISM

Mechanism
Morphology
Theaustenitetopearlitetransformationoccursbynucleationand

growth.
Nucleationoccursheterogeneouslyatthegrainboundariesof
austenite,andifhomogeneousnucleationoccursthenitwilloccurat
thecarbideparticlesorinregionsofhighcarbonconcentrationoron
inclusions
Thenucleatedpearlitegrowsintoausteniteasroughlyspherically
shapednodules.
Eachnodulehasanumberofstructuralunits
Ineachstructuralunitthelamellaearelargelyparallelandiscalleda
colony.
TheHULLMEHLmodelcanexplainwellthemorphologyof
pearlite

HULL-MEHL MODEL
Theinitialnucleusisawidmanstattenplateletofcementiteformingatthe

austeniteg.b.whichwhenasgrowsthickensaswell
Thisoccursbytheremovalofcarbonatomsfromausteniteonbothsides
ofittillcarbondecreasesintheadjacentaustenitetoafixedlowvalueat
whichferritenucleates.
Thegrowthofferriteleadstobuildofcarbonattheferriteaustenite
interfaceuntilthereisenoughcarbontonucleatefreshplatesofcementite
whichthengrow.

HULL-MEHL MODEL
Thisprocessofformationofalternateplatesofferrite

andcementiteformsacolony.
Anewcementitenucleusofdifferentorientationmay
formatthesurfaceofcolonyforminganothercolony.

Thepointtobenotedisifaustenitetransformstopearlite

ataconstanttempthentheinterlamellarspacingissame
inallthecolonies.Thefollowingfigwilldepictitclearly

Figures showing coarse and fine pearlite

- Smaller T:
colonies are
larger

- Larger T:
colonies are
smaller

Mechanism
Hull-Mehl Mechanism for pearlitic

transformation

KINETICS

Kinetics

Thisequationhowevermakesthefollowingassumptions:
(i)The,averagenucleationrateisconst.withtimewhich
actuallyisnttrue
(ii)Nucleationoccursrandomly,whichisalsonottruly
correct.
(iii)Thegrowthrate,isconst.withtime,whichcan
changefromonenoduletootherwithtime.
(iv)Nodulesmaintainasphericalshapebutnodulesmay
notbetrulyspherical

 Howeverwhenf(t)plottedagainstisshowninthecurve

showniswhichillustratesthatthebasickineticbehaviourofpearlite
formationisnucleationandgrowth.

Kinectics of transformation (contd).

At lower critical temp, the free energy of austenite is equal to
the free energy of pearlite.
Therefore at this temperature transformation of pearlite to
austenite transformation will be completed in infinite time.
So the rate of transformation will be zero.
So it is essential to undercool the austenite below the equilibrium
(A1) temp.
Below the lower critical temp, free energy of pearlite < free
energy for austenite and hence it is more thermodynamically
stable.
Lower thr free energy more will be the stability of PEARLITE.

Kinectics of transformation (contd).

Free energy of pearlite is less at lower tem and so stability is

increased by increasing T.
The decomposition of austenite to pearlite proceeds by the
redistribution of carbon atoms of austenite into ferrite and
cementite, and is essentially a diffusion controlled process.
The rate of diffusion decreases exponentially with decreasing
temp
This shows lower the transformation temp retards the rate of
transformation.
There is a transformation temp for which diffusion of C atoms is
too small resulting in diffusion controlled transformation
Rate of diffusion of carbon atoms is negligible below 200 C

Kinectics of transformation (contd).

This shows that undercooling affects the rate of transformation in

2 ways:

Undercooling

increased degree of
undercooling reduces the
transformation rate by
lowering the rate of
carbon diffusion curve.

increased degree of undercooling

increases the transformation rate
by providing greator difference
in free energies of austenite and
pearlite.

 The combined effect is shown in the curve below:

Where (a) is rate of crystal growth and (b) is rate of nucleation

Kinectics of transformation (contd).

The austenite to pearlite transformation is completed by
nucleation and growth mechanism.
The rate of transformation is governed by both.
The rate of nucleation is expressed as total numbers of of nuclei
appearing per unit time in unit vol of untransformed austenite.
Both rate of nucleation and growth are zero at eutectoid temp.
They also temd to be zero below 200 C as shown in the graph

previously

Effect of degree of on the rates of nucleation and growthUndercooling

 HardnessofpearliteincreasesasS0decreasesandalsosame

forstrength.
AsS0isinverselyproportionaltothedegreeofundercooling

thusyieldstrengthandalsoUTSislinearlyrelatedtothe
interlamellarspacingordegreeofundercoolingbelow
eutectoidtemp.
AsthepearlitecontentincreasesinCsteels,impact

transitiontempissubstantiallyraised,decreasingductility
andtoughnessastheferritecementiteinterfaceprovides
sitesforeasynucleationofcracks

 AlmostalloyingelementexceptColowerboththerateofnucleationandrateofgrowth.
Ascomparedtocarbonotheralloyingelementdiffuseveryslowly.
Asthediffusionrateformetallicatomismuchslowerthanthe
carbonatomtheformationofstablecarbideduringthetransformationwillbefeasible

onlyathighertransformationtemp.

Effect of alloying additions

PartitioningofcarbongetsdelayedwhenCreatsupCandformscarbideCr C when
on Pearlitic Transformation
alloyedwithaustenite.
23

BAINITIC TRANSFORMATION

 Bainiteisanacicularmicrostructure(notaphase)thatformsinsteels

attemperaturesfromapproximately250550C(dependingonalloy
content).

FirstdescribedbyE.S.DavenportandEdgarBain,itisoneofthe

decompositionproductsthatmayformwhenaustenite(the
facecenteredcubiccrystalstructureofiron)iscooledpastacritical
temperatureof727C(about1340F).
DavenportandBainoriginallydescribedthemicrostructureasbeing

similarinappearancetotemperedmartensite
InplaincarbonsteelPearliteandBainitesuperimpose.

Bainiteisnotsopopularandisverymuchdifficulttoget .

 Afinenonlamellarstructure,bainitecommonlyconsistsofcementite

anddislocationrichferrite.Thehighconcentrationofdislocationsin
theferritepresentinbainitemakesthisferriteharderthanitnormally
wouldbe
Thetemperaturerangefortransformationtobainite(250550C)is

betweenthoseforpearliteandmartensite.

Whenformedduringcontinuouscooling,thecoolingratetoform

bainiteismorerapidthanthatrequiredtoformpearlite,butlessrapid
thanisrequiredtoformmartensite(insteelsofthesamecomposition).

 Mostalloyingelementswilllowerthetemperaturerequiredfor

themaximumrateofformationofbainite,thoughcarbonisthe
mosteffectiveindoingso

Themicrostructuresofmartensiteandbainiteatfirstseemquite

similar;thisisaconsequenceofthetwomicrostructuressharing
manyaspectsoftheirtransformationmechanisms

However,morphologicaldifferencesdoexistthatrequireaTEM

tosee.Underasimplelightmicroscope,themicrostructureof
bainiteappearsdarkerthanmartensiteduetoitslowreflectivity.

IllustrationofContinuouscoolingtransformationdiagramshowing
Bainite

MECHANISM

Mechanism of Bainitic transformation

In the TTT curve the incubation period the

transformation is diffusion controlled

But the bainite formation takes at a temp at which
diffusion is impossible X i.e. metallic atoms wont
diffuse but diffusion of C atoms is important
This shows along with diffusion some other mechanism
is responsible for the transformation to occur
Since formation of bainite is accompanied by surface
distortion so some shear mechanism is responsible for
its transformation
So it is a complex one and involves both diffusionless
and diffusion controlled phenomena are involved
hence it is termed as a Diffusionless diffusion
controlled transformation

Mechanism of Bainitic transformation

Two mechanisms are thought to be for the

Bainite formation:
1. Displacive theory
2. Diffusion theory
Bainite is considered to be formed by
diffusionless diffusion controlled
transformation.. Both play a part in its
transformation

Diffusive theory
Thediffusivetheoryofbainite'stransformationprocessisbasedon

shortrangediffusionatthetransformationfront.

Here,randomanduncoordinatedthermallyactivatedatomicjumps

controlformationandtheinterfaceisthenrebuiltbyreconstructive
diffusion.
Themechanismisnotabletoexplaintheshapenorsurfacerelief

causedbythebainitetransformation.

Hereredistributionofcarbonatomstakesplacefromregions

enrichedwithcarbontotheregionsdeficientincarbon
concentration.

WhentheausteniteisundercooledbelowtheBstemp,Catoms
redistributeintheAustenitebydiffusion.Thisredistributionleads
toformationofregionswithvaryingcarbonconcentrationin
Austenite.Someoftheseregionsareenrichedincarbonwhile
othersaredeficientinC.SuchadifferenceinCconcentrationwill
resolveinthedevelopmentofstresses

Displacive theory
Oneofthetheoriesonthespecificformationmechanismforbainiteis

thatitoccursbyasheartransformation,asinmartensite.

Thetransformationissaidtocauseastressrelievingeffect,whichis

confirmedbytheorientationrelationshipspresentinbainitic
microstructures.

Thereare,however,similarstressreliefeffectsseenintransformations

thatarenotconsideredtobemartensiticinnature,buttheterm'similar'
doesnotimplyidentical.

Thereliefassociatedwithbainiteisaninvariantplanestrainwitha

largeshearcomponent.Theonlydiffusionthatoccursbythistheoryis
duringtheformationofthecarbidephase(usuallycementite)betweenthe
ferriteplates.

 Nowthelowcarbonausteniteregiontransformtoferrite(Bainitic

plate)bydiffusionlessshearprocess.SoItisimportanttoknow
herethatlowCAustenitewhichtransformbyshearprocessisitself
adiffusioncontrolledprocess.

precipitationofcarbidemayoccurfromtheCenrichedAustenitic

regiondependingonthedegreeofsaturation.

TheCdepletedAregionobtainedbytheprecipitationofcarbide

nowtransformtoferritebyshearmechanism.

Suchaconditionisfavourableintheupperregionofthe

intermediatetransformationtemprange,asferritehasveryhigh
solubilityofcarbon,thetransformedferritewillbesupersaturated
withC

The degree of supersaturation increases with

decrease in transformation temperature

As carbon diffusion is intensive in Bainitic
transformation region, Carbon may precipitate
out from the supersaturated ferrite.
This happens when the bainitic transformation
in the lower region in the transformation range.
Diffusion decreases exponentially so we get

different morphologys of Bainite.

MORPHOLOGY

Upper
UPPERBainite
BAINITE
Knownasfeatherybainiteasitresemblesfeatherofabird
Formsintemperaturerangeof5500C-4000C
Thestructureconsistsof
i. lathorneedlelikeferritewhichrunsparalleltothelongeraxisand
ii. carbideprecipitatesasfineplates,paralleltothedirectionofgrowth

ofbainite,mainlyatthelathboundaries
Carbidesarepresentasdiscontinuousstringerswhencarbon
contentislowandcontinuousstringerswhencarboncontentis
high.

Upper Bainite

Theferritelathshavesublathswithhighdislocationdensity
Decreaseintemperatureproducesfinerandcloselyformed
lathswithsmallerspacingofcarbideparticles
Theferriteandcementiteinbainitehaveaspecificorientation
relationshipwiththeparentaustenite
Diffusivityofcarboninthistemperaturerangeishighenough
tocausepartitionofcarbonbetweenferriteandaustenite.
Structureisbrittleandhardandthedepositionofhardcarbide
stringersonthesoftferritemakesitacompletelyuseless
structure.

Schematic growth mechanism of Upper

Bainite

Upper bainite in medium carbon

steel

Lower Bainite
KnownasPlatebainite
Formsinthetemperaturerangeof4000C-2500C
Thestructureconsistsof
i. Lenticularplatesofferrite
ii. Finerodsorbladesofcarbideatanangleof55to60ototheaxisof

bainite
Carbidescanbecementiteorcarbide,oramixturedependingon
temperatureoftransformationandcompositionofsteel

Lower Bainite
Carbidesprecipitatewithintheferriteplates
Ferriteplateshavesmallersubplateswithlowangleboundaries

betweenthem
Higherdislocationdensitythanupperbainite
Habitplanesofferriteplatesarethesameasmartensitethat
formsatlowtemperaturesofthesamealloy
Alloyingelementsdonotdiffuseorformtheircarbidesduring
bainitetransformation

Schematic representation of lower bainite structure

Lower Bainite structure in

medium carbon steel
Stages of formation of Lower Bainite

MARTENSITIC
TRANSFORMATION

MartensiteBCT

MECHANISM

Mechanism

Martensite transformation is a diffusion-less transformation

Martensiteisformedonquenchingaustenite,suchthatthediffusionof

carbonisnotfavored
Theatomsmoveinanorganizedmannerrelativetotheirneighbours
andthereforetheyareknownasamilitarytransformationsincontrast
todiffusionalciviliantransformations

Eachatommovesbyadistancelessthanoneinteratomicdistanceand

alsoretainitsneighborhoodundisturbed

Butthetotaldisplacementincreasesasonemovesawayfromthe

interphaseboundarywhichresultsinamacroscopicslipascanbe
observedasreliefstructureonthesurfaceofmartensite

Figureshowsmechanismmartensiteplateformation

 Atthebeginningofthetransformationmartensitetakesthe

formoflensorplatesspanningtheentiregraindiameter
Thesubsequentplatesformedarelimitedbythegrain
boundariesandtheinitialmartensiteplatesformed
Wheretheplatesintersectthepolishedsurfacetheybring
aboutatiltingofthesurface.
But,macroscopicallythetransformedregionsappearcoherent
tothesurroundingaustenite.

Thefigureshowshowthemartensite
remainsmacroscopicallycoherentto
parentausteniteontransformation

 Alargeamountofdrivingforceisneededforthemartensitic

transformation
Themagnitudeofthedrivingforceisprovidebythefree
energychangeaccompanyingthetransformation
Themagnitudeofthedrivingforcefornucleationof
martensiteattheMscanbeasfollows:

oThegraphsalongsideshow
thatmagnitudeofthedriving
forceincreaseswithdecrease
inthetemperatureof
transformation

Thefiguresabovedemonstratetheequationgivenabove

CrystalStructureofMartensite
MartensitehasBodyCenteredTetragonalstructure
Thetetragonalityofmartensite,measuredbythec/aratioisgiven

by:
c/a=1+0.045Xwt%C
Tetragonalityincreaseswithincreaseincarbonpercent
WhenthefccFetransformstobccFe,carbonistrappedin
theoctahedralsitesofbodycenteredcubicstructuretogivebody
centeredtetragonal(BCT)structure
Thetrappedcarbonatomscausetetragonaldistortionofbcclattice
Whencarbonismorethan0.2%,bctstructureisformed

KINECTICS OF
TRANSFORMATION

KineticsofMartensiteTransformation
ThetransformationstartsatadefinitetemperatureMs(Martensitestart)

temperature
ThetransformationproceedsoverarangeoftemperaturestillMf

temperture
Theamountofmartensiteincreasesondecreasingtransformation

temperaturebetweenMsandMf
AtMfnotallausteniteisconvertedtomartensite,butacertainamountis

presentasretainedaustenite

 AlthoughthemartensitetransformationendsatMf,someaustenite

stillremainsuntransformedasretainedaustenite
Mftemperaturedependsoncoolingrate
SlowercoolingrateslowertheMftemperature
Mftemperaturesarealsoloweredbyincreaseincarboncontent

 CoolingbelowMfdoesnotchangetheamountofmartensite.
Thevelocityofthemartensitetransformation,ingeneral,is
independentofthetransformationtemperature.
Thevelocityoftransformationisextremelyfastalmost107s.Thisis
associatedwithacryingsound.
Martensitictransformationisindependentofholdingtime

ImportantcharacteristicsofMartensite
Transformation
Diffusionless/Military tranformation
Athermal transformation.
Retained Austenite
Ms Mf temp
Reversibility of transformation
Habit planes
Bain distortion
Effect of applied stress on transformation
Hardness of Martensite

MsandMfTemperature
MartensitetransformationbeginsastheMstemperatureisreached

andendsattheMftemperature
TheMstemperaturedependsonthechemicalcompositionofsteel

andisindependentoftherateofcooling
Austenizingtemperaturetowhichthesteelhadbeenheatedprior
tothetransformationaffectsMstemperature
Higherthetemperaturecreatesthefollowingtwoconditions:
Greaterdissolutionofcarbonandcarbides,whichresultsin
loweringofMs
Largergrainsizeofaustenite,whichresultsinariseofMs

MsandMfTemperature
TherelationshipbetweenMstemperatureandthechemical

compositioncanbeshownas:
Ms(oC)=561474(%C)33(%Mn)17(%Ni)17(%Cr)
21(%Mo).
TheaboveshowsthatnearlyallelementslowertheMs

temperatureexceptCobaltandaluminium

CarbonhasthemostprofoundeffectonMstemperatureandan

increaseincarboncontentcauseloweringoftheMstemperature

EffectofcarboncontentonMsandMftemp

EffectofalloyingadditionsonMstemp

ReversibilityofMartensite
Martensitetransformationisreversible.
MartensitecanberevertedtoausteniteonheatingabovetheMs

temp.
Theessentialconditionforthereversibilityofmartensiteisthat
thereshouldnotbeanychangeinchemicalcompositionof
martensiteduringheating
Since Martensite in
steels is supersaturated
Moststeelsdontsatisfythiscondition
solid solution of
carbon in alpha iron
and it decomposes at a
very rapid rate on
heating

RetainedAustenite
RetainedausteniteUntransformedAustenite.
ItformsasAustenitetomartensitetransformsonquenchingbelow

theMstempbutaboveMftemp.
AsAustenitetomartensitenevergoestocompletionsomeamount
ofausteniteispresentinthehardenedsteel.
SinceMsandMftempdecreasewithcarboncontentincreaseso
amountofretainedausteniteincreaseswithincreaseincarbon
content.
AllalloyingelementsexceptAlandColowertheMstempand
enhancetheamountofretainedaustenite.
Therefore,bothhighcarbonsteelsandhighalloysteelsareprone
toretainedaustenite.

Amountofretainedausteniteincreaseswithdecreased
martensitetempoftransformation

Athermal
and Isothermal
AthermalandIsothermalMartensite
Martensite

Athermaltransformationoccursinmostcarbonsteels
Martensitetransformationproceedsoncontinuouscooling

belowtheMstemperature

Thetransformationstopswhenthesteelisheldataparticular

temperatureinbetweenMsandMf

Thetransformationisindependentofholdingtime

 If while the transformation process within the Ms-Mf temperature the

ooling is stopped the transformation halts

On resuming the cooling the transformation doesnot start instantly but

needs supercooling
Larger amount of retained austenite formed at Mf called stabilized

austenite

 Martensite can also form isothermally.

Isothermally transformed martensite quantity is low.
In extra low carbon base alloys or high alloy steels - low
transformation temperatures and long period of transformation.
Amount of martensite decrease with decrease in Ms- Mf
temperature.

Effectofappliedstressontransformation
Presenceofexternalandinternalstressesaffectthekineticsof

martensitictransformation
IfexternalstressesareappliedtoausteniteaboveMs
temperature,Msisraised
Astherearealargenumberofhabitplanes,theapplicationof
stressfavorsmartensiteplateformationonanyoftheplates,thus
themsisraised
Themaximumtemperatureatwhichmartensitecanbeformed
byplasticdeformationisdenotedasMd
Theamountofmartensiteformedbyplasticdeformationisa
functionofplasticdeformation

BainDistortionmodel
ThemodelwasproposedbyE.C.Bain
Anysimplehomogeneouspuredisyortionofthenaturewhich

convertsonelatticetoanotherbyexpansionandcontraction
alongthecrystallographicaxisbelongtoaclassknownas
BAINDISTORTION
Themodelexplainshowbctlatticecanbeobtainedfromfcc
latticewithminimumatomicmovement

 Inthefigureinthepreviousslide,x,y,zandx,y,zrepresentthe

initialandfinalaxesoffccandbccunitcells
Anelongatedunitcellofthebccstructurecanbedrawnwithintwo

fcccells

Theelongatedbccunitcellhasac/aratioof1.40
Thepurebccunitcellhasac/aratioof1.0
Thebctstructureofmartensitehasc/aratioof1.08

 Transformationtoabctunitcellisachievedby:

(a)contractingthecell20%inthezdirectionand
(b)expandingthecellby12%alongthexandyaxes
Thisresultsin4%increaseinvolume
Inthecaseofsteels,thecarbonatomsfitintozaxisofthe

bcccellat<100>positionscausingthelatticetoelongatein
thisdirection
Baindistortionresultsinthefollowingcorrespondenceof

crystalplanesanddirections:

 Thismodelexplainsthetransformationofmartensitefrom

austenitewithminimummovementofatoms
Thuscarbonatomsarefinallypresentonlyinthemiddleof
theedgesalong[001]axisandnotinthemiddleoftheedges
whichrepresenttheaaxis

Habitplanes
Thetransformationischaracterizedbyawellestablishedrelationship

betweentheorientationofparentausteniteandthetransformedmartensite.
Habitplanesarethoseplanesoftheparentausteniticlatticeonwhich

martensiticplatesareformedandwhichlieparalleltthephysicalplaneof
themartensiticplate.
Ahabitplaneisdistortedbythemartensitetransformationthoughalongit

sheardisplacementtakesplaceduringtransformation.
Thehabitplanesforlow,mediumandhighcarbonsteelsare(111),(225),

(259)

Anmicrographofaustenitethatwaspolishedflatandthenallowedto
transformintomartensite.
Thedifferentcolorsindicatethedisplacementscausedwhenmartensite
forms.

HardnessofMartensite
Hardness of martensite is due to carbon content and chemical

composition
Strengthening effect is due to super saturation of alpha
solution with carbon
Hardness increases with increase in carbon content in
martensite and then decreases after a certain Carbon% (0.50.6%)

 High carbon % lowers the Ms and Mf , so large amount of retained

austenite is present
Alloying elements that lower Ms and Mf temperatures, give more
retained austenite
Steel becomes softer as retained austenite increases
Two suspected factors for enhanced hardness
a) internal strains within -Fe due to excess carbon
b) the plastic deformation of austenite surrounding martensite
plates
Appearance of large number of twins interlayer and increase of
dislocation density on martensite transformation
Segregation of carbon atoms to dislocations leading to Cottrel
atmospheres
Precipitation of dispersed carbide particles from alpha phase
Self tempering results in lowering of hardness

MORPHOLOGY

MorphologyofMartensite
Martensite transformation involves two shears:

a) homogeneous lattice deformation or Bain strain

b) inhomogeneous lattice deformation which makes lattice to
be undistorted
This shear can be slip or twin .
This shear depends on composition, temperature of
transformation and strain rate.
Twinning is favored when
the yield stress of austenite is raised
carbon and alloying elements increase

 Martensitictransformationsare(usually)firstorder,

diffusionless,shear(displacive)solidstatestructuralchanges.
Theirkineticsandmorphologyaredictatedbythestrainenergy
arisingfromsheardisplacement.
Thedisplacementcanbedescribedasacombinationof
homogeneouslatticedeformation,knownalsoasBain
Distortion,andshuffles.
InahomogeneouslatticedeformationoneBravaisLatticeis
convertedtoanotherbythecoordinatedshiftofatoms.
Ashuffleisacoordinatedshiftofatomswithinaunitcell,which
maychangethecrystallatticebutdoesnotproduce
homogeneouslatticedistortivestrain.

TypesofMartensite
Therearetwotypesofmartensiteclassifiedaccordingto

morphology:
Lathmartensite
Platemartensite
A) Lathmartensite
Hasshapeofastrip,lengthisgreatestdimension
Aregroupedtogetherintheformofparallelpackets
Lathmartensitehashighdislocationdensityandlowangle
boundaries
Slipisthemainmodeofdislocation
FormedwhenMstemperatureishigh
Formedinmediumorlowcarbonsteels

B)Platematensite
Formsintheshapeofplatesorlenses(acicularorlenticular)
Thestructureresemblesmechanicaltwins
Twinningispredominantformofdislocation
FormedatlowMstemperature
Formedinhighcarbonorhighalloysteels.
HighCarbonsteelsshowssuchmartensitehavingcarbon
percentage

LathMartensite

PlateMartensite

References
1.
2.
3.
4.

PhasetransformationbookbyPorterEstering.
PhysicalMetallurgy,byVijendraSingh
MaterialScienceandEngineering,byCallister.
Heattreatment,principleandtechniques,byRajanSharma
andSharma
5. ModernphysicalMetallurgybySmallmanandBishop.