MSE 201

FAILURE OF METALS

Failure of Metals
Fracture
-involves breaking or cracking of
material
Two Types
1.
Ductile Fracture
2.
Brittle Fracture

Ductile Fracture

Characterized by a considerable
amount of plastic deformation prior
to rupture
Encountered in most low strength
and FCC metals

Brittle Fracture

Characterized by very little or no

plastic deformation
Commonly found in BCC metals,
ceramics, polymers and high yield
strength materials
Usually exhibits a shiny fracture
surface

Chevron markings in specimen with

brittle fracture (upper) and radial
fan-shaped ridges from crack origin
(lower)

Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture

SEM image of dimples

indicative of ductile
fracture

Brittle fracture by
cleavage

Intergranular type of
brittle fracture

Ductile-Brittle Transition

Change in behavior of materials as

a function of temperature

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Ductile to Brittle Transition in

Steels

Fracture Toughness

Strength of materials in the

presence of cracks wherein

m K Ic
F
a
where F fracture strength
m geometric factor
K Ic fracture toughness
a 1/2 of crack length (internal crack)

Sample Problem on Fracture

Toughness
Calculate the fracture strength of
silicon in the presence of a 4
micron crack. KIc = 26 N/mm3/2
and m = 1.2 for a crack with a
semi-elliptical shape

Sample Problem on Fracture

Toughness
Solution :
mK Ic
F
a
1.2(26 N/mm 3/2 )
F
(0.002 mm)
F 393.60 N/mm
F 57.093 psi

Thermal Stresses

Stresses induced in composite

materials of different coefficients
of thermal expansion during
thermal treatment

Equation for cool down from

adhesive cure or wire bonding
Ea ESL
max K S Si T
x
where max maximum shear stress, psi
E a adhesive tensile modulus, psi
E S substrate tensile modulus, psi
L die length, mils (1 mil 0.01 in.)
x adhesive bond thickness, mils
S substrate expansion coefficient
Si silicon expansion coefficient
K geometric constant

Sample Problem
Calculate the maximum shear on a 394
mil square die bonded to a copper
substrate using a rigid epoxy
(Ea=550,000 psi) cooled down from 170
to 25 C. Bond line thickness is 1 mil,
ECu = 17 x 104 psi, Cu = 16.8 x
10-6 /C, Si = 7.6 x 10-6/C, K = 1.25 for a
square die. Find the maximum crack
length.

Solution to Sample Problem

Substituting in the
equation, we get
max = 103,409 psi or
712.90 N/mm
Substituting in our
previous equation

mK Ic 1

a
max
2

1.2(26) 1
a

712.9
a 0.00061 mm

Fatigue

Occurs in both brittle and ductile materials

when subjected to cyclical loads as in rotary
drive shafts, torsion bars, aircraft fuselage,
interconnect wires during T/C
Visual appearance is the characteristic
clamshell markings which point to the
origin of fracture
Fatigue life is a function of stress and
temperature

Fracture Surface of Specimen

which Failed by Fatigue

Fatigue Striations Visible at

High Magnification

Endurance Limit

Creep

a slow process of plastic

deformation under high stress or
high temperature environment as in
turbine blades, smoke stacks and
pressure vessels
Source of dimensional instability for
boats, mold cavities
Characterized by three-stage life

Stages of Creep

Creep in Mo-V low-alloy steel

Deformation Mechanism
Map

Corrosion

Electrochemical degradation of metals

An electrochemical reaction is any
reaction that can be divided into 2 or
more oxidation-reduction reactions
Oxidation or anodic reaction produces
electrons
Reduction or cathodic reaction
consumes free electrons

Requirements of an
electrochemical cell
1. Existence of an EMF or potential
difference due to different metals
or structures with different
potentials resulting in the
formation of an anode and cathode

If the cell potential E for a reaction

is greater than zero, reaction is
spontaneous or energetically
favorable
Reaction kinetics must also be
considered

Nernst equation
RT ar
EE
ln
nF a p
O

E electrochemical potential
E o cell potential under standard conditions
ar activity of reactants
a p activity of products
n number of moles of electrons involved in the
reaction
F Faraday's constant 96,500 coulombs/mole

At room temperature and noting that ln x 2.3 log10 x

0.059
ar
EE
log
n
ap
0

Anode
-Metal or site of high oxidation potential
and usually observed in:
a.
Active metals
b.
Stressed regions such as portions or
large deformation cracks, scratches,
grain boundaries
c.
Areas of oxygen starvation
d.
Areas of compositional starvation
*oxidation potential a measure of the
tendency of a material to lose electrons

Cathode
-metal or site of low oxidation
potential and usually found in:
a.
Noble metals
b.
Non-metallic or intermetallic
components
c.
Areas of high oxygen concentration
d.
Unstressed areas

Requirements of an
electrochemical cell
2. Presence of electrolyte or medium
through which ions move, most
common electrolyte is water
3. Electrical contact between cathode
and anode area
*Key to corrosion prevention is
removal of any one of the
components

Kinetics of Corrosion
Reactions
Faraday's Equation
IM
w
nF
w weight loss in g/s
I corrosion current (amps)
M atomic mass of the metal (g/mole)
n valence of metal ion
F Faraday's constant, 96,500 coulombs/mole
* surface area undergoing corrosion not satisfied

 I M
W

A nF
W weight loss per unit time per unit area of
exposed surface, g/s - m 2
I / A current density (amps/m 2 )

Thickness of metal lost per

unit time of exposure
I
y'
A

nF

y ' thickness of metal lost per unit

time of exposure, m/s

Note that the form of Faradays

equation in which the corrosion
current is normalized by the
surface area is meaningful only for
uniform corrosion

Polarization

For many metals the corrosion rate

decreases with time
Due to irreversible changes in the
system that occur when current
begins to flow

Corrosion Polarization

Occurs when the rate of corrosion is limited

by the diffusion of ions within the electrolyte
Corrosion reaction can proceed more rapidly
than the rate at which ions can be supplied
to the cathode (or removed from the anode)
This alters half-cell potentials
Higher rates in moving fluid than stagnant
fluid

Activation Polarization

Occurs at the solid-electrolyte

interface and is related to the
energy barriers associated with the
corrosion process

Insert fig. 15.2-4 here

 Q
Reaction rate exp
RT
Q activation energy barrier for the process

Passivation

Passive state is surface condition under

which a material displays a significant
positive shift in its reduction potential
Results in substantial decrease in
corrosion rate of many common alloys
including those based on Fe, Ni, Cr, and
Ti
Involves formation of a nonporous,
adherent, insulating oxide on metal

Passivation
Not a general phenomenon
Occurs only for certain alloy-environment
pairs
Example 1: Al is fully passivated in
concentrated nitric acid but rapidly
attacked by dilute nitric acid
Example 2: austenitic stainless steel is
passive in aerated dilute sulfuric acid but
attacked in air-free acid

Uniform corrosion

Involves uniform loss of metal over

the entire exposed surface
For homogeneous metal surface
Relatively easy to design around

Galvanic corrosion
(Composition cells)

There are specific areas in many

alloys that are always anodic
relative to the bulk of the structure
Results in preferential or localized
corrosion
Galvanc corrosion due to
compositional variation in the alloy

Factors affecting severity

of galvanic corrosion
1.

2.

3.

Relative magnitude of the

potential difference between the
half-cell reactions
Kinetic factors such as
polarization and passivation
Ratio of the anode surface area to
the cathode surface area

Anodic Corrosion of
Aluminum

Characteristic of positively biased

aluminum bond pads
Delamination on wire results in ionic
migration of Cl- ions which has an
auto-catalytic effect on bond pad
corrosion
Cl- can also come from epoxy
adhesive or human contamination

Anodic Corrosion of
Aluminum
Al + 4Cl- Al(Cl)4- + 3e- anodic reaction
2Al(Cl)4- + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 8Cl2Al + 6H+ 2Al3+ + 3H2 + 6 eO2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OHreaction
Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)3

cathodic

Passivation

Decrease in corrosion rate

observed in some metals due to
the formation of a tenacious
oxidation film product
Reason for corrosion resistance
observed in aluminum, nickel,
chromium, titanium and stainless
steels

Metallurgical Factors
Affecting Corrosion

Grain size
Alloying elements
Single and multiphase materials
Stress

Example of Corrosion Oxygen

Concentration Cell

Precipitation of chromium carbide at

grain boundaries leading to
corrosion of stainless steel

References
1. W.D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering, An
Introduction, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada,
1997
2. M.W. Barsoum, Fundamentals of Ceramics, International
Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Singapore, 1997.
3. W.D. Kingery, H.K. Bowen and D.R. Uhlmann, Introduction
to Ceramics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1976.
4. H.J. Frost and M.F. Ashby, Deformation-Mechanism Maps,
Pergamon Press, New York, 1982.
5. T. Courtney, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, USA, 1990.

END