Samplingandanalysisforfeasibilitystudiesandmineralprocessing 150330030522 Conversion Gate01

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Basdew Rooplal
Mining & Metallurgical consultant
http://mineralprocessingconsultant.com/
SAMPLING Mineral Processing Deposits & Process Plants, Bench

Scale testwork with a view for flowsheet development.
CONTENTS
Sampling Introduction
Sampling for feasibility studies
Types of sampling and samplers
Types of Analysis
Bench scale testwork
Flowsheet development and ore dressing studies
Ore characterisation and understanding the ore body
SAMPLING INTRODUCTION
The objective of
sampling in mineral
processing is to estimate
grades and contents of
sampling units in an
unbiased manner and
with an acceptable and
affordable degree of
precision.
Mineral deposits are sampled for several reasons

including:
Resource evaluation
Determination of the
physical and chemical
characteristics of
material,
And process
amenability.
SAMPLING
Generally sampling is
the process of selecting
a part of a whole such
that the measured value
for the part is an
unbiased estimate for
the whole.
In mineral processing a
whole is referred to as a
sampling unit such as
mill feed, dewatered
concentrate or bullion.
A sampling unit is classified as a dynamic stochastic

system when sampled during transfer, and as static
stochastic system when sampled whilst stationery.
DEFINITIONS:
ACCURACY
A generic term that
implies closeness of
agreement, between a
single measured value
or the central value of a
set (arithmetic mean or
weighted average), and
the unknown true value
of a stochastic variable.
This definition reflects that accuracy is an

abstract concept.
By contrast a lack of accuracy can be measured

and quantified in terms of a bias or a systematic
error.
Webster defines accuracy as free from error.
DEFINITIONS: BIAS
A statistical significance
difference between a
single measured value
or the central value of a
set, and an unbiased
estimate of the unknown
true value of the
stochastic variable.
Testing for absence or
presence of bias is an
essential part of
sampling in mineral processing.
Terms such as random error or error without

adjuncts or adjectives, will not be used to avoid
confusion with randomly distributed variations for
which the variance is the fundamental and
unambiguous measure.
DEFINITIONS:
PRECISION
A generic term that
refers to the magnitude
of randomly distributed
variations (random
variations) in the
measurement procedure
applied to estimate the
central value of the
stochastic variable of
interest.
Quantitative measures of precision are:
Confidence intervals in
absolute values or
Relative percentages
Symmetric and
asymmetric confidence
ranges in absolute
values,
Derived from the
variance of the central
values for the variable
DEFINITION: SAMPLE
A part of a sampling unit
or sample space
selected such that a
measured value for the
part is an unbiased
estimate for the
sampling unit or the
sample space.
A sample is often referred to as a representative

part of a population or a whole.
SAMPLING FOR
FEASIBILITY STUDIES
Sampling for plant
design during the
feasibility phase of a
project can be critical to
the overall success of
the project but this is all
too often minimized.
Sampling at this stage is
usually carried by
geologists and mining
engineers for
Identification and quantification of ore reserves.
Sampling for comminution and the amenability of

the ore for processing is left for later bulk sampling
programs.
SAMPLING FOR
FEASIBILITY STUDIES
Precise quantification of
the processing
characteristics of the
plant feed material does
require the additional
sampling, much
information can be
obtained from the initial
feasibility sampling
program that can guide
and even determine
The testwork program and even final design.
Due to budget constraints the initial team is limited

to geologist, mining engineers, geotechnical
engineers and environmentalists.
TYPES OF SAMPLES
Core Drilling
Reverse circulation
drilling
Auger Drilling
Other drilling methods
Channel Sampling
Trench sampling
Geochemical and
environmental Sampling
Run of mine ore feed
Crusher product sampling
Water samples
Sampling of pulps
Sampling of loaded carbon, slags flue dust, etc.
Sampling of bullion
Sampling of liquids/
CORE DRILL SAMPLES

This is the preferred
method of recovering
material from within the
ore body and is also the
most expensive.
Generally between 27
mm to 100 mm in
diameter.
Cores are generated
using a circular drill bit
that allows a cylinder of
rock to rise
Within the interior of the drill steel as the drill

progresses.
The resulting drill core generally has a smooth
surface and is consistent in diameter along its
length.
DRILL CORE SAMPLES
BAUER LARGE
DIAMETER DRILL RIG
REVERSE CIRCULATING
DRILLING
Operates in the same
manner as holes drilled
for general purpose viz.
boreholes
Less expensive than
core drilling
The samples from each
drill interval are logged
separately as they come
from the hole.
RC is not recommended when the exact transition

from one rock to another is required viz. coal.
AUGER DRILL
AUGER DRILLING
When material is
unconsolidated Auger
drilling method is used.
Soils, placer deposits of
river gravel, and
previously placed
material such as mine
waste dumps and
impoundments.
The sample may consist of the entire amount of

material extracted from the hole or a hollow tube in
the middle of the drill stem can be used to collect
materials from only desired depths.
OTHER DRILLING
METHODS
Other specialized drilling
methods are also used
to recover samples of
material and to make
holes within which in
situ measurement can
be made.
Chip and mud samples
are collected from
ordinary rotary drilling
Which are less expensive but also less reliable and

are used for indicative purposes only.
Specialized drills for collection of large pieces of

rock such as placer sampling are also used.
CHANNEL SAMPLING
Where the material to
be sampled is exposed
to the surface or in
underground workings,
channel sampling is
used.
In this procedure a
channel of dimensions
similar to the diameter
of the core or RC hole is
excavated.
The resulting samples are chips similar to those

recovered through RC drilling.
Channel samples have the advantage over RC

samples in that the material can be geologically
logged prior to excavation.
TRENCH SAMPLING
Where the material to
be sampled is close to
the surface, trenches
are excavated to gain
access to the material
and samples are taken
either as channel
samples within the
trenches or as selected
samples of the
excavated material.
This results in broken material
GRAB SAMPLING
When material is
exposed on surface or
underground, it is
possible to grab samples
on a random basis as it
is mined or transported.
Such samples maybe
useful for obtaining
overall averages for
large amounts of
material but not
Useful for identifying material characteristics at a

specific location.
STOP BELT SAMPLING

FOR ROM MATERIAL
The feed belt is stopped,
a former placed on it
and all the material
within the former is
removed into a bucket
before restarting the
belt.
This method is recognized by certain national and

international standards as the reference sampling
method when checking for bias in automatic
samplers.
AUTOMATIC SAMPLING
OF RUN OF MINE ORE
Due to problems
occurring during stop
belt sampling the
process can be
automated.
Primary increments from
the discharge of the
head pulley are taken
and increments and subdivisions are further
processed by crushing.
Automatic samplers have now been developed

where the samples are taken in the direction of the
material flow.
PRIMARY CROSS BELT

SAMPLERS
Easily mounted on
conveyor stringers along
length of conveyor
Guaranteed not to damage the conveyor belt when

correctly installed
CRUSHER
PRODUCT
SAMPLING
Rotary Plate Divider
For continuous or timed
dry material splitting
Suitable for primary
sampling and secondary
division
Must be consistently fed
by vibratory feeder or
feeder conveyor
Ideal sample divider for
bulk materials handling
systems
SAMPLING OF PULPS
Manual sampling is
usually employed but is
not reliable:
There is no guarantee
that the samples will
be unbiased
Precision of the
measurement is much
lower than can be
obtained with
mechanical methods.
The mechanical systems are usually of two types,

viz.
Those with cross

stream cutters
And the arc type rotary
cutters.
SLURRY SAMPLING
Primary Rotary Samplers
Vezin Samplers & Launder Samplers
TYPES OF ANALYSIS: IN
SITU MEASUREMENTS
A down hole survey is
carried out in order to
locate the position of the
sample that has been
taken since drill holes are
seldom straight over long
distances.
Other types of probes that
are inserted into open drill
holes include:
callipers to measure the
diameter
of
The hole along its length
Resistance sensors to detect the presence of water,

carbonaceous material, and gamma sources,
And detectors to measure density and normal

radiation levels,
TYPES OF ANALYSIS: IN
SITU MEASUREMENTS
Expandable cylinders to
measure rock strengths
and stresses,
Gauges to measure
ground water levels
.Sophisticated tomographic techniques use sensors

placed in multiple drill holes to provide detailed
information on the material between the drill holes.
Work is underway to develop sensors that will be

able to detect the presence of metals.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
GEOLOGIC LOGGING
Drilling samples both
core and chips are
logged by geologists in
order to record the
material characteristics
along the drill hole.
Samples are logged for:
Rock types
Alteration types
Association of various
minerals
And estimated content

of the desired
commodity
Core samples are also logged for:
fracture spacing and

intensity,
Rock quality
designation
And fracture
orientation
Photographs are also taken of the core.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Representative samples of the
core are subjected to chemical
analysis.
The analysis includes:
moisture content
Total metal content
Soluble metal content
Content of non-metal
commodities
Heat content for coal and oil
shale
Ash content after
combustion
In some cases multiple samples are combined to

give composite metal values.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
MINERALOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Direct measurement of
mineral types is possible
using QEM*SEM.
QEM*SEM uses a
computer controlled
scanning electron
microscope which can
distinguish minerals and
their attributes in
individual ore particles.
These images can also be processed to provide

information on:
modal abundance
Grain size
Mode of occurrence
Liberation
characteristics
And quantity of mineral
phase recoverable.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Direct measurement of
physical parameters of
the materials sampled
are also performed.
These include:
In situ density
Porosity
Permeability
Compressive strength
Compaction
Grinding index
In some commodities it is the physical

characteristics that determine value e.g. kaolin
where the value is determined by brightness and
slurry viscosity.
METALLURGICAL TESTWORK
- BENCH SCALE TESTWORK
Introduction
The resistance of ore samples to breakage (or

hardness) is measured through grindability tests.
Several grindability tests have been developed over

the years for different applications and each test
has its own strengths and weaknesses
Grindability tests are a compromise between test

costs and its deliverables.
The highest degree of deliverables and certainty is
achieved in a pilot plant, which is also the most
reliable test procedure to determine the resistance
of ore samples to grinding or hardness and is also
the most expensive.
SUMMARY OF
GRINDABILITY TESTS
Bond Ball mill

Grindability
The AG/SAG mill or HPGR circuit products, which

have non-standard particle size distribution.
One of the keys of the Bond work index success

over time has been its reliability and reproducibility.
The figure below shows that the Ball Mill work index
is normally distributed with AVG 14.6 and Median
14.8
GRINDABILITY TESTS
Bond Rod mill work

Index
The rod mill work Index is also normally distributed

with and average and median of 14.8kWh/t
It is common to observe difference between the ball
and rod mill caused by variation in ore hardness
The test has been mainly used for the design of rod
mill or primary ball mills.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
GRINDABILITY TESTS
Consists of an apparatus with two pendulum

hammers mounted on two bicycle wheels, so as to
strike equal blows simultaneously on opposite sides
of each rock specimen.
The height of the pendulum is raised until the

energy is sufficient to break the rock specimen
The test is generally performed on 20 rocks
One of the strengths of the test is to measure the

natural dispersion in the sample.
Another advantage of the test is the coarse size 2
3 inches which makes it unique in the series of
tests.
http://mineralprocessingconsultan
t.com/
Bond low energy

impact test
SAG power index (SPI)
SPI expressed in minutes , is the time T necessary

to reduce the ore from P80 of 12.5mm to P80 of 1.7
mm
The SPI has the advantage

of requiring low weight and
is suited for
geometallurgical mapping
of ore deposits
SPI is widely used and deposits can be compared in

terms of hardness and variability, see fig below.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
JKTECH drop weight

test
Developed by JKMRC
Divided into 3 components:
Test measures the

resistance to impact
breakage of coarse
particles in the range 63
13.2 mm
Then evaluates the
resistance to abrasion
breakage in the range 53
37.5 mm
Finally the rock density

of 20 particles is
measured to asses the
average ore density as
well as its dispersion.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
JKTECH drop weight

test
The test generates the appearance function
E.g. the breakage

pattern of the ore
under a range of
impact and abrasion
breakage conditions
The appearance function can be used in the
JKSimMet modelling and simulation package to
predict the ore response to comminution process
GRINDABILITY TEST
JKTECH Drop weight

test
Also part of these procedure is the density

determination of 20 rock samples, using water
displacement techniques.
Figure 5 shows an ore displaying a wide range of

densities.
The density distribution of the ore is important in

AG/SAG milling because
It affects the bulk density of the charge and

associated power draw
GRINDABILITY TESTS
JKTECH drop weight

test
A great number of rock weight tests have been

performed over the years which allows for
comparison of ore types in a data base.
The frequency distribution of the function A x b
from JKTech is depicted in Fig 6
GRINDABILITY TESTS
JKTECH drop weight

test
One of the interesting features of the drop weight

test procedure is that it provides a variation in rock
hardness by size from 13.2 to 63 mm.
Fig 7 illustrates this at 3 different energy levels.
0.25 1.0 and 2.5 kWh/t
For a very competent ore,

the curve will be nearly
horizontal, a noncompetent fractured ore
will show a high gradient
with increasing size
GRINDABILITY TESTS
SAG Mill comminution

test
This is an abbreviated drop weight test, which can

be performed at low cost on small samples 19 22
mm or drill cores.
5 kg of sample is normally sufficient.
The advantage of the SMC test is that it generates

the energy versus breakage relationship with as
small quantity of sample of a single size fraction.
Because the test can be performed on small rocks,

it is well suited for geometallurgical mapping.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
MacPherson Autogenous
Grindability tests
This is a continuous test performed in a 46 cm

semi-autogenous mill with an 8% ball charge.
The pilot plant consists of a feed hopper, cyclone,
screen and dust collector with a control system to
regulate the charge volume and circulating load.
100 to 175 kg of sample is required with a top size

greater than 25 mm.
The test is run continuously for 6 hours.
The importance of reaching a steady state in a

grinding mill is widely accepted, this test is the only
small scale test that offers the option.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
MacPhersons Autogenous
grinding tests
Throughput rates
Specific Energy
GRINDABILITY TESTS
Media Competency
test
There has been some variations of media

competency test developed over the years with the
assessment of media survival in autogenous milling
being the main objective.
104 to 165 mm rocks are subjected to a tumble test

using 10 large rock in 5 size fractions.
The surviving rocks are submitted to fracture

energy test procedure.
This provides the relationship between the first
fracture energy requirement and rock size.
GRINDABILITY TEST
High Pressure Grinding

Rolls
HPGR are emerging as an energy efficient

alternative to AG/SAG circuits.
The traditional method for testing is processing

large samples in a pilot scale.
Several tests are performed to asses the effect of

operating pressure and moisture content on HPGR
performance
The power input is recorded and presented below.
GRINDABILITY TESTS
Impact Crushability
Gives a WI that can be applied to 3 types of

crushers
Gyratory WI can be used to determine the horse

power.
Impactors WI is an indication of hardness
Cone Crusher rate the material to determine the

duty of the crusher
CRUSHABILITY TEST
Paddle Abrasion
Results are in the form of Abrasion Index and

chemical makeup of the material
Tests are used to determine whether an Impactor or

cone crusher is suitable.
Can also be used to calculate the approximate liner

life for the crusher
CRUSHABILITY TESTS
Dynamic
Fragmentation
French Abrasion
Gives an Abrasion and Crushability Index
Mainly used to estimate hammer wear in the

Impactor application
Conducted for Impactor application

Measures the friability of the material
Dynamic fragmentation number will indicate if the

Impactor is feasible for a particular application.
CRUSHABILITY TESTS
FLOWSHEET
DEVELOPMENT - ODS
Introduction
Ore dressing studies the characterisation of the ore

body with respect to metallurgical properties.
In conjunction with the project requirements,
geologists and mineral resource management, a
sampling program is compiled for the specific ore
body.
These samples are characterised with respect to

various flowsheet and data obtained from the
characterisation work is analysed and evaluated to
improve the process recovery .
This provides information with regards to risk
minimisation, for both plant design envelopes as
well as operational efficiency
ODS - KNOWLEDGE
FLOW
ODS - IN AN ORE BODY

DEVELOPMENT
ODS - GENERIC DIAGRAM FOR

SAMPLE CHARACTERISATION
Test work consists of a suit of laboratory and pilot

plant scale tests
Laboratory tests are typically rock mechanic tests
as used by equipment manufacturers to provide
performance guarantees for comminution
equipment.
These also include drop weight tests , a

methodology used to determine the extent of
breakage resistance due to impact and abrasion.
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ODS - COMMINUTION
CHARACTERISATION
Depending on the requirement of the specific ore

dressing study, i.e. feasibility study , pilot scale
tests can be conducted on various comminution
equipment to validate laboratory scale test results
and generate plant design information.
Samples can also be provided to equipment

manufactures to conduct their own tests
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ODS - COMMINUTION
CHARACTERISATION
The data generated from the characterisation tests

is analysed and interpreted by process specialists.
This is a collaborated effort amongst in-house
specialists, proprietary and commercial software,
research institutes, and equipment manufactures
and suppliers.
Interpretation in this context means that key

metallurgical parameters are determined and
operating envelopes are established.
Also potentially problematic ore types are identified

and process recommendations are made.
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ODS - DATA ANALYSIS

AND INTERPRETATION
The output results in key plant design information.
E.g. comminution characterisation predicts the

product size distribution and mass balance via
simulation for scrubbing and each of the crushing
stages.
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ODS - DATA ANALYSIS

AND INTERPRETATION
The role of the metallurgist is key in generating the

flowsheet design knowledge package through the
interaction with a variety of process specialists and
process engineers.
Important major ore related problem areas within a
specific ore type are also highlighted.
This means that such problem areas and solutions

are integrated within the overall process design.
Depending on the phase of the project the

integration process also includes a level of
simulation of the ore dressing study, and derived
flowsheet options that resulted from the
characterisation of the various ore types.
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ODS - INTEGRATION
Simulation enables critical investigation of all

system attributes, and the ability of the circuit
design to deliver finished product with out recycling.
Raw ore dressing information and knowledge is
traded off against practical operational constraints,
which leads to a fit-for-purpose design
That has the best chance of maximizing recovery of

minerals from in-situ resources.
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ODS - INTEGRATION
To reduce the risk of selecting incorrect equipment

from a vast array of possibilities a formalised set of
tools to guide equipment selection and plant
design have been developed
These tools consist of commercially available as

well as proprietary tools
Process engineers are provided with basic flow

diagrams and related metallurgical parameters.
The process engineer will then expand on the

original ore dressing flowsheet provided and
develop a number of flowsheet based on the project
requirements.
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ODS - PLANT DESIGN
Completed ore dressing

study assists the
process engineer to
rapidly evaluate
scenarios using existing
models and create an
understanding of how
the metallurgical
envelope of
characteristics develop
through the ore body.
An evaluation of proposed solutions against a

background of knowledge derived from the study is
then conducted.
The knowledge derived from the study supports the

engineer in the design phase and assists in
reducing project risk and increases confidence in
the approved flowsheet.
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ODS - PLANT DESIGN
ORE CHARACTERISATION UNDERSTANDING THE ORE BODY

AND THE METALLURGY
The best possible characterisation of the ore body

will enhance the ability to extract better outcomes
from a mine to mill application.
The greater data, the better characterisation of the
ore body Properties.
This characterisation is important in developing

extraction and processing strategies which
enhance the productivity gains possible from a
mine to mill application (JKMRC 1998)
CHARACTERISATION UNDERSTANDING THE ORE BODY

AND THE METALLURGY
At its simplest , characterisation is about

developing the best possible understanding of the
ore body , in particular its variability.
One of the first comprehensive characterisation

studies was reported by Simkus and Dance (1998)
at the Highland Valley Mine
Had developed a program mapping the hardness

of different ore types, since the late 1970s.
By late 1990s , drill monitors were being used to

provide an estimate of ore hardness of subsequent
blasted ore.
Ore was then tracked to stockpiles using mine

dispatch systems and movement through
stockpiles was modelled.
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Highlands Valley
An image analysis system was used to provide an

estimation of the feed size distribution to the SAG
mills.
Relationships were developed between ore

hardness, feed size and mill throughput.
This approach provided a strong ability to predict

expected mill throughput information which could
then be utilised in process control.
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AND THE METALLURGY

AND THE METALLURGY
Rock Mass Rating
Rock quality designation
Standard rock mass properties are usually obtained

as geotechnical information from drill core and
include:
Point load Index
Youngs Modulus
Poissons Ratio
Unconfined Compressive stress
In-situ block size
Joint spacing
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Rock Mass Properties

AND THE METALLURGY
These data typically include:
Grades, including the grades of gangue minerals

and minor elements
Flotation grade and recovery data as determined by

laboratory flotation tests
Grindability data, principally related to ore

hardness, as measured by bond work indices and
JKMRC grinding model parameters,
Mineral liberation
Lithology
Geological Alteration
Acid forming potential of ore
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Metallurgical Process
Parameters

AND THE METALLURGY
Models frequently used in mine to mill studies

include
Mine block models incorporating geotechnical and

geometallurgical parameters.
Blast fragmentation models
Muck pile models
Comminution models
Models which predict the final stockpile shape

resulting from open pit blast are increasingly useful
when it is desirable to understand where material
of different properties, notably grade, reside in the
muck pile after blast.
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Predictive Models

AND THE METALLURGY
The literature analysis suggests that the tools

required to implement Mine to mill approach are
available in acceptable form.
Many of these hardware and software tools are

provided by established suppliers and have been
successfully implemented.
Most tools are also subjected to research and

further development
The area of greatest need is the availability of tools

to monitor mine to mill outcomes.
To date these have been developed at individual

sites
More generic software tools would be useful.
t.com/
Conclusions

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D

SAMPLING Mineral Processing Deposits & Process Plants, Bench

Mineral deposits are sampled for several reasons

A sampling unit is classified as a dynamic stochastic

This definition reflects that accuracy is an

By contrast a lack of accuracy can be measured

Webster defines accuracy as free from error.

sampling in mineral processing.

Terms such as random error or error without

Quantitative measures of precision are:

A sample is often referred to as a representative

Identification and quantification of ore reserves.

Sampling for comminution and the amenability of

The testwork program and even final design.

Due to budget constraints the initial team is limited

Run of mine ore feed

Crusher product sampling

Sampling of loaded carbon, slags flue dust, etc.

CORE DRILL SAMPLES

Within the interior of the drill steel as the drill

DRILL CORE SAMPLES

RC is not recommended when the exact transition

The sample may consist of the entire amount of

Which are less expensive but also less reliable and

Specialized drills for collection of large pieces of

The resulting samples are chips similar to those

Channel samples have the advantage over RC

This results in broken material

Useful for identifying material characteristics at a

STOP BELT SAMPLING

This method is recognized by certain national and

Automatic samplers have now been developed

PRIMARY CROSS BELT

Guaranteed not to damage the conveyor belt when

The mechanical systems are usually of two types,

Those with cross

Vezin Samplers & Launder Samplers

The hole along its length

Resistance sensors to detect the presence of water,

And detectors to measure density and normal

.Sophisticated tomographic techniques use sensors

Work is underway to develop sensors that will be

And estimated content

Core samples are also logged for:

fracture spacing and

Photographs are also taken of the core.

In some cases multiple samples are combined to

These images can also be processed to provide

In some commodities it is the physical

The resistance of ore samples to breakage (or

Several grindability tests have been developed over

Grindability tests are a compromise between test

Bond Ball mill

The AG/SAG mill or HPGR circuit products, which

One of the keys of the Bond work index success

Bond Rod mill work

The rod mill work Index is also normally distributed

Consists of an apparatus with two pendulum

The height of the pendulum is raised until the

The test is generally performed on 20 rocks

One of the strengths of the test is to measure the

Bond low energy

SAG power index (SPI)

SPI expressed in minutes , is the time T necessary