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RESERVOIR
CHARACTERIZATION
STATIC
MODEL
Data Flows
DYNAMIC
MODEL
Work Flows
Static Model
PVT/Fluid
Saturations
Model
Reservoir
Flow Units
Basic Engineering
Results
Property
Distributions
Model
Static
Reservoir
Model
or
Multiple Realizations
Volumetrics / Mapping
Assess Connectivity
Scale-Up for Flow Simulation
Cell-Based Modeling
Cell-based,
stochastic, 3-D
modeling of lithology,
porosity and
permeability in a
sequential order
Preserves major
heterogeneities
Statistical control
is obtained from
cores, logs,
seismic and
outcrops
Lithology
Porosity
Permeability
Object-Based Modeling
Object-based,
stochastic, 3-D
modeling of well
defined morphologic
objects
Pseudo genetically
simulate
depositional history
Statistical control is
obtained from
cores, logs, seismic
and outcrops
Stochastic Model
Objects
Cells
Objects
Geocellular Model
(millions of cells)
Upscaling
(thousands of cells)
Reservoir Simulator
Dynamic
Modeling
Anisotropy
- Directional Variation in Flow Properties
Heterogeneity
- Spatial Variation in Reservoir Architecture/
Properties
Injection
well
Reservoir Sandstone
Trapped oil
Shale Barrier
Injection
well
Trapped
Oil - Completions
Infill
well
Injection
well
300 m
Gigascopic
50 m
300 m
Megascopic
5m
150 m
2m
Macroscopic
Microscopic
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
1m
cm
mm - m
Well Test
14
10
Reservoir Model
12
2 x 10
Grid Cell
Wireline Log
Interval
Core Plug
Geological
Thin Section
3 x 10
5 x 10
1
7
2
Layercake
High continuity baffles
Pinch outs
Permeability Profiles
Jigsaw
Thief zones
Orientation of flow units
Permeability contrasts
Local baffles
Labyrinth
Orientation flow units
Interconnectivity (N/G < .35)
Dead end gravity traps
Layer-cake
Deterministic layer boundaries
Variogram based Phi-K calculations
Deterministic
Jigsaw
Indicator simulation of lithotypes
Variogram based Phi-K calculations
Deterministic
&
Probabilistic
Labyrinth
Object based modeling of sand bodies
Variogram based Phi-K calculations
Probabilistic
PVT/Fluid
Saturations
Model
Reservoir
Flow
Units
Property
Distributions
Model
Static
Reservoir
Model
Core Pore
Plugs Types
Petrophysical
Data
Capillary
vs k Pressure
5
4
3
Deterministic Methods
Traditional mathematical, engineering,
geologic, and other scientific methods
that produce unique solution to the
posed problem without involving methods
of random functions.
God does not play dice
A. Einstein
Stochastic Model
a definition
A set of simplified, equiprobable
realizations of the studied object
that honors available data
Properties at unsampled locations
are estimated using stochastic
methods
Methods of random functions
used for the solution of geological
and engineering problems and
statistical evaluation of results
Deterministic Modeling
Percentage Longer
Marine
Deltaic
Barrier
50
Distributary
Channel
Coarse
Point
Bar
0
0
500
1000
Delta Fringe
and
Delta Plain
1500
2000
Geostatistical Modeling
Methodology in Geostatistics
Define area of interest.
- Scoping analysis
Model spatial continuity
- Variogram modeling
Estimate spatial distribution
of properties
Kriging
Conditional simulation
Object modeling
Spatial Continuity
Exists in most earth science data sets
On the contour map low values tend to
be near other low values and high value
tend to be near other high values
Porosity and permeability fields are
never truly random
Variogram quantifies spatial continuity
Cross validation
Simulation
Kriging (Estimation)
Developed by D. Krige 1951
Linear, unbiased, exact, minimizes error
variance
Cross Validation
Purpose:
To evaluate accuracy of prediction
Drop one point at a time,
Estimate value at the dropped location
using kriging
Compare true and estimated values
Cross Validation
100
K Estimated
10
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
K True
10
100
Cokriging
Problem:
Petrophysical data (e.g. porosity,permeability)
is sampled sparsely (i.e. at wells)
Seismic data (amplitude) is sampled densely
but does not directly measure desired
property (e.g. porosity or permeability)
A Solution:
Cokriging correlates desired undersampled
reservoir property to widely sampled
parameter
Cokriging
Well Data
CrossVariogram
Model
Example Using
Variogram Well and Seismic
Model
Data
Cokriging
Cokriged Map
Varioram
Model
Seismic Data
Stochastic Modeling
Gaussian Simulation
(cell-based model)
Simulation
Krigging
smooth, good for detecting trends
bad for building reservoir simulation model
Simulation
reproduces histogram, honors variability
good for building reservoir simulation model
allows to assess the uncertainty with multiple
realizations
Model
Simulation:
Quantifying Porosity Uncertainty
Probability of Porosity
above 8%
Probability of Porosity
above 12%
Sequential Gaussian
Simulation
Transform the data to normal distribution
Assign data values to closest grid nodes
(known points)
Establish random path through all grid nodes
Visit each grid node once
Sequential Gaussian
Simulation
Visit each grid node once
find informed (by input and previously simulated)
cells
construct conditional distribution by krigging (local
mean and variance define Gaussian distribution)
draw a random number (norminv(rand(),m,)
from histogram
Well
Well
No Vertical Exaggeration
Individual Blocks are 5 Feet by 50 Feet
Permeability - Khmax
<0.1 md
0.1 - 0.5 md
0.5 - 2.5 md
2.5 - 15 md
>20 md
(modified from Cox and Others, 1994)
Well
Well
No Vertical Exaggeration
Individual Blocks are 5 Feet by 50 Feet
Low-Angle
Wind Ripple
High-Angle
Wind Ripple
Mixed
Grain
Flow
(modified from Cox and Others, 1994)
Stochastic Modeling
Object Model
Boolean Simulation Example
Sand
Shale