T205B - Block 04 Week 02

BLOCK 04 - WEEK 02
Concept file 04
Section II Control Readings 08-13
Managing Within Organizations
Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205BLebanon Branch
Reading 8 Two Forms of Control
8.1 Control systems are everywhere

If you walk into the kitchen and find the kettle boiling furiously what do you
do?
Here we have a process (water boiling in kettle),

We observe the state of one of the outputs (steam all over the place),
We recognize the output as unacceptable so we do something about the input
(turn the kettle off).
Control systems are deeply built into our lives at every possible level. Our
bodies possess a vast number of regulatory systems which maintain the stable
internal environment that it needs to function properly.
The essence of any control system is that the process being controlled is
monitored carefully, and if it deviates from what is required corrective action is
taken.
Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch
8.1 Control systems are everywhere:

In everyday language there are many phrases that reflect this type
of process: trial and error, adjusting plans in the light of
evidence, searching, homing in, and exploring.
The idea of controlling is related to the idea of problem solving;
A problem is a situation which deviates from what we expect or
want it to be, and we need to correct.
Control is used to describe situations which require continuous
adjustment in ways that are well understood
Problem solving is used for situations where the deviation is more
of a one-off event, and where the nature of the required correction
is not well understood.
8.1 Control systems are everywhere
Another meaning of control
Control could also mean a plan that has been carefully

pre-set, and is then carried out strictly to the point.
If the plan is correct and appropriate, the result will be

exactly as intended.
Ex.
Robot-welder in a car assembly plant that does

exactly what it has been programmed to do.

8.2 The Two Senses of Control
Both kinds of control can be considered as ways of getting a process to
achieve a pre-set goal.
1.
The first kind of control is managed by continuously monitoring
how far the outputs of the process are from what you want, and
adjusting the inputs accordingly.
2.
The second kind of control is managed by using prior knowledge

of the process and/or using skill to set the process up in advance in
such a way that it will deliver the results we want.
In almost all human systems, these 2 types of control become

interwoven
At organizational level, control of both kinds is absolutely essential if
the organization is to function as a coherent entity.

8.2 The two senses of Control
These 2 types of control can be used separately
One way to distinguish them & to understand the elements they
involve is to examine a model that was constructed to help engineers
think about the controls that are used in mechanical systems.
In this model:
1.Control
of the first kind is normally known as closedloop or feed-back control.

2.Control of the second kind is normally known as openloop or feed-forward control.

Open-loop control

This diagram illustrates the control of a toast-making
process its standard components include inputs,
transformation process and outputs.
There is a control function managing the process.

This includes 2 components: The actuator & the goal.
Question: Which one of the five elements listed above
doesnt yet connect properly into the story?
All the elements listed are physical or mechanical and
can fit together except for the goal which is set by the
human user of the tool.
Open loop control can be extremely efficient in the right
circumstances where everyone knows exactly what they
have to do, and at the right moment they just go in and
do it

Open loop control has 2 major drawbacks:
1.
We need to know in advance what we have to do to get

the right results.
If an organization is facing up to a new challenge,
switching on one of the standard routines probably wont
work
2.
The controller has no means of adjusting itself to meet

unexpected conditions.
Open-Loop Control
Open loop control does its thing but it isnt
intelligent about it.
It is suitable for conditions that are well

understood & stable.
Traditional engineering or manufacturing
processes contain numerous automated
tools and processes that are controlled in an
open-loop way because they operate in an
environment of uniformity and
standardization.
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Closed-Loop Control
11
However open-loop control will certainly break down

under uncertainty & change.
In less predictable conditions, we need a mechanism
that can (at least to some extent) sense what is
happening and adjust itself accordingly.
Closed-loop, or feed-back, control takes the basic open
loop system and ads on extra elements that check how
things have been going at the output, compare this to
the goal, and then takes action to reduce the deviation
between output and goal in a continuous cyclic process.
Closed-Loop Control
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The continuous monitoring of the deviation from what

is required means that, adjustments to the upcoming
inputs can be made automatically.
Closed-loop control systems are also considered

negative feedback systems, because when the sensor
notes a deviation, the actuator tries to reduce the
deviation.

If
the comparator notes a positive deviation,

the actuator makes a negative adjustment.
If
the comparator notes a negative deviation,

the actuator is always trying to correct
deviation by adjusting the process in the
opposite direction to the observed deviation
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Arab Open University - Faculty of

Business - T205B- Lebanon
Branch

Closed-loop control
14

Closed-loop
control
Closed-loop
control is also sometimes called

control by negative feedback, because as a
result of the cyclic feedback action the
deviation is reduced.
In addition to the elements included in the
open-loop control process the closed loop
control process includes: a sensor, a feedback
path, a comparator, and knowledge about the
situation.
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Open loop versus closed loop

In
Open Loop the loop is unconnected or open

or dependent on some external agency.
In
open loop control systems there is no loop for

sensing the output and feeding this information
back to affect the input.
16

In
such systems, control feeds forward into

the upcoming inputs to the process, rather
than being the result of information fed
back from the recent output of the process.
Closed loop control processes are complex.
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Branch
Reading 08 Open loop versus closed loop
Wastefulness is built in them by allowing errors and

making corrections, which makes them very costly.
They
can never be perfect because

adjustments cant occur until after a variation
has already happened.
In open-loop control every input that passes
through the actuator is subject to exactly the
same control.
If the control setting is correct, there is 0%
error. If an open-loop control system is set
incorrectly we can get 100% error.
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Reading 08 Open Loop Versus Closed Loop

In
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closed-loop control, we dont get perfection

but we never get the kind of gross errors openloop systems can give when they go wrong.
Classifying a control system as an open or
closed loop depends on how wide we draw the
boundary.
Control systems like any other system, are
often hierarchical, with controllers of the
controllers of the controllers.
Reading 09 Constructing Control Model Diagrams
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The system being controlled is shown as a

classic input/output diagram
The process that transforms the inputs into the

outputs is represented as a box (we dont include in it
details of how the process works, only a label for
what it does.
Reading 09 Constructing Control Model

Diagrams
21
The feedback path linking the control

stream elements is represented by arrows,
(these flows of information are drawn more
lightly to distinguish them from the process
flows which involves physical flows of
materials and energy).
The sensor is positioned on the output
arrow & is represented by a blob (like a
measuring dial).
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The comparator is represented as an

open circle with a cross in it.
The goal must be stated with an arrow
leading form the goal to the comparator.
The actuator is represented as a small
box and is usually positioned on the
actual input arrow.
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The background knowledge, or model,

can be represented by a cloud symbol,
with an arrow going to the actuator.
A control system can only exercise control if

all the separate components, arrow, etc.
work together as a complete, integrated,
system
Branch
Reading 10 Applying the Control Model
This reading discusses the practicalities of putting

control models to use, to investigate a control failure
or to design a way of achieving a desired goal.
The analysis examines the control system at

different levels and with different boundaries, e.g.:
Thinking carefully about each component in turn
Looking at how these components are integrated
1.
2.
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3. Looking at how the control system is
related to its wider environment, and how it
might be seen form other perspectives.
25
Before looking at the key control elements

we need to remember that control happens
only when the system works as a whole.
10.1 The goal
If you dont know where you are going, how will you know you have
got there?
26
There are various kinds of goals: Hard & soft goals
1.
Hard goals are those that are quantifiable and

comparatively unambiguous (to produce 100 cars a
week).

10.1
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The goal
2.
Soft goals are qualitative and much less

precise (to improve staff morale).
Control systems based on a single hard goal

can be very effective and simple.
If the comparator is to work properly, it must compare like with like.
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The goal must be specified unambiguously, and the

relevant information sensed at the output and
converted into useful information for feedback, which
must be quantitative and in a form that can be
compared directly with the goal.
Soft goals are as crucial as hard goals however they
can be very hard to measure.
Sometimes a hard indicator can provide a good
measure of a soft goal, (absenteeism as an indicator
of staff morale).
Reading 10
Management Goals vs. Work Group Goals
Management and work groups might have different

sometimes conflicting goals.
Official vs. operative goals

1.
Official goals are publicly acknowledged such as
an organizations policy statement.
2.
Operative goals are concerned with the way the
organization, the work group or individual actually
operates (what they are trying to do instead of
what they say they are trying to do).
29

10.2 The sensor
30
In mechanical systems, the sensor senses one set of

data only, & this is in the same format as the goal.
In organizations, the design of sensors to generate
clear-cut measurements that relate unambiguously to
a goal is not usually straightforward.
As well as measurement-related issues datacollection can also affect the people involved and this
may, in turn affect the data-collection.

10.2 The sensor
1)
2)
3)
31
Data collection can be a politically sensitive activity.

Measurement frequency (e.g. whether to measure
staff morale on a weekly, monthly, or quarterly basis),
and sensitivity (using an in depth interview or an
annual staff appraisal) are often an issue.
Sensing progress towards soft goals is particularly
difficult, and trying to be precise about it can lead to
problems.

10.2
The sensor
4) Sampling always creates the risk of either
missing a brief deviation that should have
been spotted, or getting a misleading
impression.
sampling is a snapshot of a situation and it can
catch the subject either in a flattering or
unfortunate pose
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Reading 10 Applying the control model

10.2 The sensor
Indicators for soft goals work well if:

They are seen as offering help and support
rather than criticism,
They are well designed and take account of
the natural reactions of the people involved.
33

10.3 The comparator
In a physical control system such as a thermostat, the comparison is

of like with like (temperature with temperature), and all the
actuator can do is to vary this input accordingly.
The comparator can control this totally.
In human systems comparison and actuation are rather different:

The comparison is often between an abstract goal and a sensor
measurement that is only a rough and unreliable indicator of how
near you are to the goal.
The actions available to the person or group acting as actuator
are usually quite limited.
34
10.3 The comparator
In human systems comparison and the subsequent

actuation involves some interpretation.
Even in a simple numerical case, where the
comparison is usually straightforward such as sales
target, it is necessarily obvious what the
comparator should be sending to the actuator.
If the comparator suggests to try harder the
question remains how.
This is where the background knowledge or model
comes in.
35
Reading 10 Applying the Control

Model
10.3 The comparator
Here we should mention two specific points:
Firstly, there can be considerable debate about the
correct value for the raw data used in the
comparison.
Even if the method of calculating the data is

understood, there can still be considerable debate
about the interpretation of the figures.
Interpretation depends on different things such as
company size, the types of product it makes, its
overall turnover, its previous sales figures, &so on.
The consequences of multiple interpretations can be very serious.
36
10.4 The actuator
37
In complex human systems judging whether

we are on course or not (comparison) is a
different activity from deciding what to do
about it (actuation).
So the actuator is effectively the decision
maker in the systems.
10.4 The actuator
1.
2.
38
We can distinguish between two logical

kinds of actions that the actuator can
attempt:
Adjust the flow or quality of one or more of
the inputs to the process.
Adjust the capability of the process itself.

10.5 The interconnections
In many management contexts, different elements of a
control loop will be carried out in different places by
different people:
39
The sensor role may be carried out field maintenance

staff completing job sheets.
The comparator role may be carried by some central
office that collates the field data
The goal may be set by the management team.
The actuator role may be taken by supervisors and
machine operators on the shop floor.
Reading 11 Oscillation, Lag, Phase and Anticipation
Closed-loop control systems have some properties:
Oscillation
Lag
Phase
Anticipation
These properties that can cause severe problems
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11.1 Oscillation
41
They are not a source of worry as long as things

keep on changing without getting out of control.
Work groups can regulate their efforts to match their
targets which dampen the effects of the fluctuations.
Oscillation is basically the fluctuation of a situation
up or down or for better or for worse.
11.2 Lag,
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phase and anticipation
Lag is the time needed by the control system to notice

an incorrect value of an input and intervene, in order to
readjust its value.
A variable that swings to and from (like the road that
swings left then right), is said to be moving between
different phases. The to is one phase, and the from
is another.
11.2 Lag, Phase & Anticipation
In situations where the things that we are trying

to control change phases in less time than
the lag we need to take notice of the change,
then our attempt at correcting the situations
might end up making things worse.
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11.2 Lag, phase and anticipation
The advantage that individuals have over machines in

this case is their ability to recognize patterns and
sometimes anticipate the phase change.
Lag is the time needed by the control system to notice
an incorrect value of an input and intervene, in order to
readjust its value.
44
. 11.2 Lag, phase and anticipation

A variable that swings to and from (like the road
that swings left then right), is said to be
moving between different phases.
The to is one phase, and the from is
another.
45
Reading 11 Oscillation, lag, phase and anticipation
46
In situations where the things that we are trying to

control change phases in less time than the lag we
need to take notice of the change, then our attempt at
correcting the situations might end up making things
worse.
47
The advantage that individuals have over machines in

this case is their ability to recognize patterns and
sometimes anticipate the phase change. Anticipating
correctly can eliminate the effect of lag. That is why
organizations try to plan, forecast, predict, etc. But
anticipating is a two edged sword.
If we get it wrong we could be in a much worse mess

than if we had done nothing.
Oscillation is basically the fluctuation of a situation up or
down or for better or for worse.
They are not a source of worry as long as things keep
on changing without getting out of control. Work groups
can regulate their efforts to match their targets which
dampen the effects of the fluctuations.
48
49
11.3 Limits to the use of the control model
The control model is mostly applied in

situations where there is a single, clear goal,
where the way to achieve that goal is
unproblematic & where the goal remains
unchanged over a period of time.
11.3 Limits to the use of the control model
In unpredictable changing situations, uncertainty

regarding the goals increases. Control doesnt
address many issues like:
1. Designing and implementing any control system
involves many judgments, however the control
model does not provide any help in making them.
2. The model does not address issues of power and
how control is to be achieved
50
Reading 12 Links Between Systems
Most human systems involve multiple control loops joined

together.
The problem does not usually lie in the system itself but in
its relationship with other systems, and many of the
most complex behaviors are due to multi-control-loop
systems.
When we intervene in such systems, unexpected
consequences are likely to emerge in other systems
connected to it.
51
It is helpful to ask the following questions:
1.
What system sets the goal of the system I am

analyzing, and do the two systems mesh well
together?
What lags are there between the various systems
involved, and what effects are these having?
Is the information passing between different control
systems being distorted in any way?
2.
3.
52
12.1 Horizontal links
It usually represented by a series of input output

boxes, however long chains of horizontally linked
control systems are likely to be difficult to control in the
absence of higher level structures.
To reduce the adverse effects of such horizontal links
the following guidelines might be adopted:
53
1)
To use buffers or slack in the system.

To use just in time systems which reduces the cost of
carrying buffer stocks but needs flexibility on the part
of employees.
Redrawing the boundaries to include two or more
work groups are combined in one system
2)
3)
54

Branch
Encouraging negotiation between work

groups about mutual adjustment.
5) Trying to forecast variations and take this into
account when loads are planned.
4)
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12.2 Vertical links
56
This hierarchical structure represents a vertical or nested set of control loops.

Such structures still exist even in the most flatter organizations.
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T205B - Block 04 Week 02

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BLOCK 04 - WEEK 02

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205BLebanon Branch

Reading 8 Two Forms of Control

8.1 Control systems are everywhere

Here we have a process (water boiling in kettle),

Reading 8 Two Forms of Control

8.1 Control systems are everywhere:

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

8.1 Control systems are everywhere

Another meaning of control

Control could also mean a plan that has been carefully

If the plan is correct and appropriate, the result will be

Robot-welder in a car assembly plant that does

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

The second kind of control is managed by using prior knowledge

In almost all human systems, these 2 types of control become

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

of the first kind is normally known as closedloop or feed-back control.

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

There is a control function managing the process.

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

We need to know in advance what we have to do to get

The controller has no means of adjusting itself to meet

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

It is suitable for conditions that are well

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

However open-loop control will certainly break down

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

The continuous monitoring of the deviation from what

Closed-loop control systems are also considered

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

the comparator notes a positive deviation,

the comparator notes a negative deviation,

Arab Open University - Faculty of

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

control is also sometimes called

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

Open loop versus closed loop

Open Loop the loop is unconnected or open

open loop control systems there is no loop for

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Two Forms of Control

such systems, control feeds forward into

Arab Open University - Faculty of

Reading 08 Open loop versus closed loop

Wastefulness is built in them by allowing errors and

can never be perfect because

Arab Open University - Faculty of Business - T205B- Lebanon Branch

Reading 08 Open Loop Versus Closed Loop

closed-loop control, we dont get perfection

Reading 09 Constructing Control Model Diagrams

The system being controlled is shown as a

The process that transforms the inputs into the