04-WIS5 MechanicalTesting 2006

CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspection
Destructive Testing
TWI Training & Examination
Services
Course Reference WIS 5
Course notes section reference 4
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd
Destructive Testing Definitions

What is Destructive Testing ?
The destruction of a welded
unit or by cutting out selected
specimens from the weld is
carried out to check the
mechanical properties of the
joint materials. They can be
produced to:
Approve welding procedures (BS EN 288)

Approve welders (BS EN 287)
Production quality control
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative tests to measure Mechanical Properties
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed
qualitative tests for assessing joint quality
Macro testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick-break testing
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material to
withstand deformation under
static compressive loading
without rupture
Definitions
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material undergo

plastic deformation under
static tensile loading without
rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction in
cross section area
Definitions
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material to
withstand bending or the
application of shear stresses
by impact loading without
fracture.
Definitions
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Measurement of a materials
surface resistance to
indentation from another
material by static load
Definitions
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Measurement of the maximum

force required to fracture a
materials bar of unit crosssectional area in tension
Mechanical Test Samples

Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen
Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen
Fracture Fillet
Specimen
Destructive Testing
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING
top of fixed pipe
2
Typical Positions for Test

Pieces
Specimen Type
3
Position
Macro + Hardness
Transverse Tensile
2, 4
Bend Tests
2, 4
Charpy Impact Tests
Additional Tests
5
Mechanical Testing
Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against

penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
Hardness Testing
Objectives:
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold

cracking and corrosion sensitivity in H2S
Information to be supplied on the test report:
material type
location of indentation
type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
hardness value
Hardness Testing
usually the hardest region
1.5 to 3mm
fusion line
or
fusion
boundary
Hardness Test Methods
HAZ
Typical Designations
Vickers
240 HV10
Rockwell
Rc 22
Brinell
200 BHN-W
Vickers Hardness Test

Typical location of the indentations
Butt weld from one side only
Butt weld from both side
Vickers Hardness Test

Vickers hardness tests:
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid (136
included angle)
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is converted to a
hardness number from a table
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Diamond
indentor
Indentation
Adjustable
shutters
Vickers Hardness Test Machine
Brinell Hardness Test

Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for a
given time to a given load
Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell hardness
in kg/mm2
More suitable for on site hardness testing
30KN
=10mm
steel ball
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell B
Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
=1.6mm
steel ball
120Diamond
Cone
Schlerescope Hardness Test
dynamic and very portable hardness test

accuracy depends on the the condition of the test/support
surfaces and the support of the test piece during the test
for more details, see ASTM E448
Mechanical Testing
Impact Testing
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Objectives:
measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Material type
Notch type
Specimen size
Test temperature
Notch location
Impact Strength Value
Charpy V-Notch Impact

Test
Specimen
Pendulum
(striker)
Anvil (support)
Charpy V-notch impact test specimen

Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials

Charpy Impact Test

22.5o
8 mm
2 mm
10 mm
100% Brittle
Machined
notch
Fracture surface
100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture
100% Ductile
Machined
notch
Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
Ductile / Brittle Transition

Curve
Temperature range
Ductile fracture
47 Joules
Transition range
Ductile/Brittle
transition
point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50
- 30
- 40
- 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
Ductile / Brittle Transition

Curve
Temperature range
Mn < 1.6 % increases
toughness in steels*
Transition range
Ductile fracture
47 Joules
Ductile/Brittle
transition
point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50
- 30
- 40
- 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
Comparison Charpy Impact Test

Results
Impact Energy Joules
Room Temperature
-20oC Temperature
1.
197 Joules
1.
49 Joules
2.
191 Joules
2.
53 Joules
3.
186 Joules
3.
51 Joules
Average = 191 Joules
Average = 51 Joules
The test results show the specimens carried out at room

temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20oC
Charpy Impact Test

Reporting results
Location and orientation of notch
Testing temperature
Energy absorbed in joules
Description of fracture (brittle or ductile)
Location of any defects present
Dimensions of specimen
Mechanical Testing
Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
UTS Tensile test
Tensile Tests
Different tensile tests:
Transverse tensile.
All-weld metal tensile test
Cruciform tensile test
Short tensile test (through thickness test)
Tensile Test
All-Weld Metal Tensile
Specimen
Transverse Tensile
Specimen
Transverse Joint Tensile Test
Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint
material type
specimen type
specimen size (see QW-462.1)
UTS
location of final rupture
Transverse Joint Tensile Test
Weld on plate
Weld on pipe
Multiple cross joint

specimens
Transverse Tensile Test

Maximum load applied = 220 kN.
Least cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm
UTS = Maximum load applied

Least c.s.a.
UTS =
220 000
25mm X 12mm
UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Transverse Tensile Test

Reporting results:
Type of specimen e.g. reduced section
Whether weld reinforcement is removed
Dimensions of test specimen
The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, p.s.i or Mpa
Location of fracture.
Location and type of any flaws present if any
All Weld Metal Tensile Test

BS 709 / BS EN 10002
All Weld Metal Tensile Testing
Direction of the test *
Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.

All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Gauge length
Object of test:
Ultimate tensile strength.
Yield strength.
Elongation %(ductility).
Increased gauge length

2 marks are made
Gauge length 50mm
During the test, Yield & Tensile strength are recorded

The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
Increased gauge length 75mm

A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50 %

Original gauge length = 50mm
Increased gauge length = 64
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100

Original gauge length
Elongation % = 64 X 100
50
Elongation = 28%

Reporting results:
Type of specimen e.g. reduced section
Dimensions of test specimen
The u.t.s, yield strength in N/mm2, p.s.i or Mpa
Elongation %
Location and type of any flaws present if any
STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
STRA test
Original CSA
Reduced CSA
STRA test
20
STRA %
Reductio
n of CSA
15
10
Mechanical Testing
Macro / Micro Examination

Object:
Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a visual
evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld and
parent plate
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
approval test

Will Reveal:
Weld soundness
Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
Micro
Macro
Visual examination for

defects
Visual examination for

defects & grain structure
Cut transverse from the

weld
Cut transverse from a

weld
Ground & polished P400

grit paper
Ground & polished P1200

grit paper, 1m paste
Acid etch using 5-10%

nitric acid solution
Acid etch using 1-5%

nitric acid solution
Wash and dry
Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under 5x

magnification
Visual evaluation under

100-1000x magnification
Report on results
Report on results
Metallographic Examination
Macro examination
Micro examination
Metallographic
examination
Objectives:
detecting weld defects (macro)
measuring grain size (micro)
detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking

and corrosion sensitivity

material type
etching solution
magnification
grain size
location of examined area
weld imperfections (macro)
phase, constituents, precipitates (micro)

Mechanical Testing
Bend Testing
Bend Tests
Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing can
also be used to give an assessment of weld zone ductility.
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Face bend
Side bend
Root bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm
in thickness
Bending test
Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):
t up to 12 mm
Root / face
bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm
Side bend
Bending test methods
Guided bend test
Wraparound bend test
Bend Testing
Face bend
Side bend
Root bend
Defect
indication
Generally this
specimen
would be
unacceptable
Acceptance for
minor ruptures on
tension surface
depends upon code
requirements
Bend Tests
Reporting results:
Thickness and dimensions of specimen
Direction of bend (root, face or side)
Angle of bend (90o, 120o, 180o)
Diameter of former. (typical 4T)
Appearance of joint after bending e.g. type and location of
any flaws.
Mechanical Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination
of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet
welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single
hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects

Hammer
2mm
Notch
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

This fracture indicates

lack of fusion
This fracture has

occurred saw cut to root
Lack of Penetration

Reporting results:
Thickness of parent material
Throat thickness and leg lengths
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture
Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Mechanical Testing
Nick-Break Testing
Nick-Break Test
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the fracture
surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the
welds root and cap
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a
single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
Nick-Break Test
Notch cut by hacksaw
3 mm
19 mm
3 mm
Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed
Nick Break Test
Alternative nick-break test

specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen
Lack of root penetration

or fusion
Inclusions on fracture
line
Nick-Break Test
Reporting results:
Thickness of parent material
Width of specimen
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture
Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Summary of Mechanical Testing

We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:
Quantitative: (Have units)
Qualitative: (Have no units)
Hardness (VPN & BHN)
Macro tests
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs)
Bend tests
Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa)
Fillet weld fracture tests
Ductility / Elongation (E%)
Butt Nick break tests
Hydrostatic test
Is an under pressure leakage proof test
Vessel configuration:
the test should be done after any stress relief
components that will not stand the pressure test (e.g.
flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be removed
the ambient temperature MUST be above 0C (preferably
1520C)
Hydrostatic Test
Test procedure:
blank off all openings with solid flanges

use correct nuts and bolts, NOT G clamps
two pressure gauges on independent tapping points
should be used
for safety purposes bleed all the air out
pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic pressure
stresses)
test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500, ASME VIII).
Usually 150% design pressure
hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes
Hydrostatic test
What to look for:
leaks (check particularly around seams and nozzle welds!)
dry off any condensation with a compressed air-line
watch the gauges for pressure drop
check for distortion of flange faces, etc
Mechanical Testing
Any Questions
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Question
How are the mechanical properties of Carbon & CarbonManganese steel weld joints influenced by the welding parameters
used - current, voltage & travel speed ?
(assuming that sound welds are produced)
Answer
Strength - does not change very much over a wide
range of welding conditions
Toughness - high heat input tends to reduce toughness in
weld & HAZ
Hardness - low heat input tends to increase HAZ hardness
Welding Technology
ARC WELDING - HEAT INPUT CONTROL
Heat Input
Volts
Amps
J/mm
Travel Speed (mm/sec)

(Usual practice is to divide by 1000 to give units as kJ/mm)
Heat Input
Volts
Amps
kJ/mm
Travel Speed (mm/sec) x 1000
Welding Positions (to EN Standards)

PA (flat)
PB (horiz.- vert.)
PG (vert.- down)
PC
PF (vert.-up)
PD
PE (overhead)
Welding Positions (to EN Standards)
H-L045 vertical-up progression

J-L045 vertical-down progression
45
Welding Positions
Question:
How does welding position influence heat input ?
Answer:
Highest heat input usually associated with vertical-up
welding (PF or 3G with uphill progression) because of
relatively low travel speed
Lowest heat input usually associated with vertical-down
welding (PG or 3G or 5G with downhill progression) because
of relatively high-speed travel
Welding Technology
Maximum
Temperature
THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)

solid
weld
metal
solid-liquid transition zone
grain growth zone

recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone
unaffected base
material
Welding Technology
High & Low Heat Input Welding
High heat input - small number of large weld beads
large % of as-cast
microstructure in
weld metal
wide HAZ
Low heat input - large number of small weld beads
narrow HAZ
large % of refined
microstructure in
weld metal
Welding Technology
Charpy
Vnotch
Toughness
(Joules)
unwelded
fine grained
steel
good toughness
in steel at
design temp.
design temperature
Impact Test Temperature
Welding Technology
Charpy
Vnotch
Toughness
(Joules)
steel
HAZ
degraded HAZ
associated with
high heat input
welding
good toughness
in steel at
design temp.
low toughness
in HAZ at
design temp.
design temperature
Impact Test Temperature
Welding Technology
HAZ HARDNESS
Carbon-Manganese Steels
HAZ
Hardness
moderate heat input moderate hardness
low heat-input
higher hardness
high heat-input lower hardness
Cooling Rate of HAZ (C / h)

Welding Technology
HAZ HARDNESS
Low Alloy Steels
(higher Cr-Mo types)
HAZ
Hardness
HAZ will harden even when

heat input is relatively high
Cooling Rate of HAZ (C / h)

Fracture Mechanisms
In-Service Fracture
Ductile Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
Fracture Mechanisms
Ductile Fracture
Ductile Fracture
Ductile (overload) fracture appears when yielding and
deformation precedes failure
Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture distinguish features:
it is the result of overloading
evidence of gross yielding or plastic deformation
the fracture surface is rough and torn
the surface shows 45 shear lips or have surfaces inclined
at 45 to the load direction (because maximum shear plane
is at 45 to the load!)
Fracture Mechanisms
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture
It is a fast, unstable type of fracture.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture
It is a fast, unstable type of fracture.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Effect of a notch on tensile ductility
Courtesy of Douglas E. Williams, P.E., Welding Handbook, Vol.1,

Ninth Edition,reprinted by permission of the American Welding Society
A notch also adversely affect fatigue strength!

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture distinguish features:
There is little or no plastic deformation before failure
The crack surface may show chevron marks pointing back
to the initiation point
In case of impact fracture, the surface is rough but not torn
and will usually have a crystalline appearance
The surface is normally perpendicular to the load
Brittle Fracture
Factors affecting brittle fracture:
Temperature (transition curve, convergence of YS and UTS as

the temperature is reduced)
Crystalline structure (b.c.c. vs. f.c.c.)
Material toughness
Residual stress
Strain rate (YS increase but UTS remain constant)
Material thickness (restrain due to surrounding material)
Stress concentrations/weld defects
Brittle Fracture
Causes for brittle fracture:
Presence of weld defects (poor quality)
Poor toughness in parent material (wrong choice)
Poor toughness in HAZ (to high heat input)
High level of residual stress (no PWHT, wrong design)
Fracture Mechanisms
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
If a material is subjected to a static load, final
rupture is preceded by very large strains.
If the same material is subjected to cyclic loads,
failure may occur:
At stress well below elastic limit
With little or no plastic deformation
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue cracking at the

weld toe
Products liable to Fatigue

Failure
Pressure Vessels
Aerospace
Piping systems
Oil/Gas platforms
Products liable to Fatigue

Failure
Lifting equipment
Overhead Cranes
Overhead Cranes
Engineering plant
Rotating equipment
Fatigue Fracture
Location: Any stress concentration area
Steel Type: All steel types
Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions
Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch and
weld defects i.e stress concentration area
All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as a
initiation point
The fracture surface is smooth in appearance sometimes
displaying beach markings
The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
combination of both
Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Toe grinding, profile grinding.
The elimination of poor profiles
The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld defects
Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits
The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage cap/root
undercut
The selection of the correct material for the service conditions of
the component
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an
area of low stress and stop without failure).
Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance
Fatigue fracture surface

smooth in appearance
Initiation points / weld defects

Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
crack growth is slow
it initiate from stress concentration points
load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
the surface is smooth
the surface is bounded by a curve
bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface
-beachmarks. They show the progress of the crack front
from the point of origin
the surface is 90 to the load
final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as
the maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Fracture Mechanisms
Creep Phenomenon
Creep Failure
Creep fracture
Creep is defined as a slow deformation under constant load at
elevated temperatures.
Can occur in materials which are operated for extensive periods at
high temperatures.
The reason for creep fracture is the flow (or plastic deformation) of
metals when held for long periods of time at stresses well bellow
their normal yield strength.
Creep Failure
Creep failure distinguish features:
Creep is a time-temperature dependant phenomenon
Section under stress continue to deform even if the load is
maintained constant
Creep is most likely when operating near the recrystallization
temperature of that material
Usually appear in case of process plant equipment, due to
heating and cooling cycles
Any Questions

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CSWIP 3.

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Destructive Testing Definitions

Approve welding procedures (BS EN 288)

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Ability of a material undergo

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

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World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Measurement of the maximum

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

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Mechanical Test Samples

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Typical Positions for Test

Charpy Impact Tests

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Measurement of resistance of a material against

There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint

assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold

Information to be supplied on the test report:

type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Hardness Test Methods

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Vickers Hardness Test

Butt weld from one side only

Butt weld from both side

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Vickers Hardness Test

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Vickers Hardness Test Machine

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Brinell Hardness Test

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Rockwell Hardness Test

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Schlerescope Hardness Test

dynamic and very portable hardness test

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd