Selecting advanced

constitutive models: an
overview
Dr. Alejo O. Sfriso
Professor, Soil Mech and Geology, University of
Buenos Aires
Principal Geotechnical Engineer, SRK Consulting
(Argentina)
asfriso@srk.com.ar

Table of contents
Introduction
Implications of the ingredients of a
constitutive model

Kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function and strength
Flow rule
Hardening and softening

Conclusions
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Introduction
Numerical modelling routine for predicting 2D
failure, now used for 3D problems and
serviceability estimates
For 3D problems, constitutive models
themselves (not just the parameters) have
big impact on the outcome
In this presentation we will overview some
challenges that occassional practitioners may
encounter when performing numerical
modelling
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We will focus in the implications of

Numerical methods: when

(Potts et al 2002)

Addressing complex geometry, geological

conditions
Addressing complex material behaviour
Solution influenced by the in situ stress
state
Estimating effect of construction sequence
Estimating deformations
Establishing thresholds for monitoring
programs
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Determining failure
mechanisms

Definition of a constitutive
model

A constitutive model is a set of formulas that

fully determines the state of the material
before and after any change in its
configuration
Input
current value of stress and state vars
strain increment

Output
updated stress and state vars
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Material pars and state vars

Material parameters: input constants that do
not change during the calculations
State variables: describe the state of a
material (through functions) and change
during the calculation
The split between material pars and functions
of state vars is model dependent
Linear elasticity
Nonlinear elasticity
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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics: strain is e p
splitted into elastic and plastic components

p e
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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics
Stress-strain equation:
relates stress to elastic strain

e p
E e

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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics
e p
Stress-strain equation
E e
Yield function: the onset of plastic strains
c

p
F 0 0

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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function
Flow rule:
F 0p0
evolution of plastic
strain and plastic
work dissipation

e p
E e

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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function
Flow rule
F 0p0
Hardening and
softening

e p
E e

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Elastoplasticity in one slide

Small-strain kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function
c

Flow rule
Hardening and
E
softening
The definition of all these elements (and
their numerical implemmentation) will p e

be reviewed for non-routine problems

v
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Table of contents
Introduction
Implications of the ingredients of a
constitutive model

Kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function and strength
Flow rule
Hardening and softening

Conclusions
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Kinematics, stress and

calibration

Experimental results (including numerical

simulations) might use different definition of
stress or strain than that of the model (check
with lab)
P A

P A
Sample height before/after
Failure: difference
confining pressure applied
readily apparent
Stress on deformed
Intermediate strain (hardening
d Psample
A0
0

D 7012 (rocks)
D 4767 (soils)

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d P A
A

1 v
A0
1 a

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plasticity): difference within

experimental uncertainty

Small strain (elasticity) ~ same curve

Kinematics, stress and

calibration

Experimental results (including numerical

simulations) might use different definition of
stress or strain than that of the model (check
with lab)
P A

P A

Failure: difference
readily apparent

Suggestion: Perform a numerical

simulation of the tests you use to
Intermediate strain (hardening
plasticity): difference within
experimental uncertainty
calibrate your model
Adjust parameters if requiredSmall strain (elasticity) ~ same curve
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Stress-strain equation
Linear elasticity is universal in rock
engineering
When incorporating structures into the rockmass, elastic nonlinearity might improve

predictive capability
Nonlinear elasticity available
d
in codes or can be incorporatedIncreasing
d
stiffness due to
(e.g. fish function or .dll)
gap closure
Suggestion: Address the nonlinearity
of elastic response by
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(Chen 1990)
using a proper elastic formulation

Stress-strain equation

d
d

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Example: cutback model at

Ok-Tedi
(Mylvaganam, Baczynski, de Bruyn, Price
2011)

Interesting comparison of Phase2 vs UDEC

model
Phase2 could have done better with nonlinear
elasticity

Phase2
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UDEC
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Example: Filling a stope with

rockfill

Nonlinear elasticity should not be reproduced

by changing the Youngs modulus across
stages
Rockfill model

Pressure
dependent
stiffness

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(Chen 1990)

Example: Filling a stope with

rockfill

Nonlinear elasticity should not be reproduced

by changing the Youngs modulus across
stages
Rockfill model
If you dont have such model, you might be
tempted to use linear elasticity + Excel
You compute p = 2691kPa
The correct value is p = 12,100kPa
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Example: Filling a stope with

rockfill

You dont improve your estimate adding lines

in Excel

Suggestion: Choose the simplest model

that will reproduce the material behavior
of your particular problem, provided you
do not change the material parameters
by hand across stages
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Yielding and failure

(isotropic)

Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown perfect

plasticity models used worldwide for routine
analyses
Hoek-Brown
Mohr-Coulomb

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Yielding and failure

(isotropic)

Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown perfect

plasticity models used worldwide for routine
analyses
J3 yield functions incorporating the
effect of 2 now less uncommon
Sandsto
ne

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(Akai & Mori 1970, in Lade

Yielding and failure

(isotropic)
J3 yield functions predict
higher compressive strength
in plane strain than in
triaxial compression

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Yielding and failure

(isotropic)

3D numerical models using M-C or H-B

criteria
If calibrated using triaxial tests, might
underestimate strength for PSC conditions
like tunnels and stopes
If calibrated using GSI correlations, may
over-estimate strength for triaxial
conditions like pillars
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Yielding and failure

(isotropic)

3D numerical models using M-C or H-B

criteria
If calibrated using triaxial tests, might
underestimate strength for PSC conditions
like tunnels and stopes
If calibrated using GSI correlations, may
over-estimate strength for triaxial
conditions like pillars
Suggestion: Dont rely on correlations as your
only
source of parameters for advanced
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models

Yielding and failure

(anisotropic)

Simple yield model yields to an isotropic

failure criterion
N
(Mohr-Coulomb
or Hoek-Brown type)
T

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Yielding and failure

(anisotropic)

Simple yield model yields to an isotropic

failure criterion
N
(Mohr-Coulomb
or Hoek-Brown type)
T

Joints add additional yielding mechanisms:

anisotropy
N
(ubiquitous joint models)
T

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Yielding and failure

(anisotropic)

For ubiquitous joint models, whats not joint is

still rock-mass: applying intact rock
strength parameters frequent mistake, a
killer for some 3D configurations

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(Bonnier 2015)

(Waterman

Flow rule
In practical terms, flow rule controls plastic
dilatancy
Most codes use the deBorst-Vermeer equation
for non-associativity of the Mohr-Coulomb
model
F 1 3 1 3 sin 2ccos 0
( replaced by )
G 1 3 1 3 sin 2ccos 0

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Flow rule
For 3D applications, this formulation deserves
a review
Associativity: too much plastic volumetric
strain

vp

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Flow rule
For 3D applications, this formulation deserves
a review
Associativity: too much plastic volumetric
strain
Volumetric
non-associativity: correct plastic
vp
qvol strain

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Flow rule
For 3D applications, this formulation deserves
a review
Associativity: too much plastic volumetric
strain
Volumetric
non-associativity: correct plastic
vp
qvol strain
de Borst equation: different 2 predicted

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Flow rule
Experimental evidence is scarce, not
necessarily supporting non-associativity in
the deviatoric plane
Difference more significative for J3 models

Experimental

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Nakai

HoekBrown

Flow rule
Using deviatoric associativity,
the Mohr-Coulomb model
has attractors in the corners

Experimental

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Flow rule
Suggestion: When specifying dilatancy in 3D,
check various stress-paths using simple
numerical tests
Run a version with no dilatancy and check
differences
If not reasonable, check
if your combination of
yield function and flow
rule allows for the
development of realistic MatsuokaHoek1352015 @ ISRM
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Nakai
Brown
Montreal
plastic deformations

Hardening and softening

Hardening and softening is reproduced by
evolution equations for the state variables
(other than stress)
Strain-softening inevitably
induces strain localization

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Displacements, PSC
simulation
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(Sfriso 2010)

Hardening and softening

Hardening and softening is reproduced by
evolution equations for the state variables
(other than stress)
Strain-softening inevitably
induces strain localization
Without the proper numerical
gear, thickness of shear band
equals that of element
That is mesh-dependence:
Displacements, PSC
a
fatal
flaw
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(Sfriso 2010)

Hardening and softening

Conventional FEM/FDM model
All these points
compute strain in one point at a time
participate in
joint
For localized deformation
displacement
(fracture/shear band)
you must consider the
contribution of strains
of all points within an
area which depends
on the material
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Hardening and softening

If you add more points (mesh refinement)
Include
all these new points must also be included
these
new points

If your model does not ask you

for the size of this bubble
(an input parameter with
units of length or energy)
you cannot model
strain-softening
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Hardening and softening

Suggestion: Avoid modelling strain-softening
(in conventional FEM/FDM software) because
it may lead to uncontrolled localization of
purely numerical nature

You must
consider the
contribution of
strains of all
these
points
You
refine:
(coarse)
more
points

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must be
included
(Sfriso 2010)

Hardening and softening

Suggestion: Avoid modelling strain-softening
(in conventional FEM/FDM software) because
it may lead to uncontrolled localization of
purely numerical nature

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This slope is
not a material
property but
proportional

(Sfriso 2010)

Hardening and softening

Suggestion: Avoid modelling strain-softening
(in conventional FEM/FDM software) because
it may lead to uncontrolled localization of
purely numerical nature
When calibrating strain-softening models use
at least two widely different meshes and go
ahead only if you
get similar parameters using the two meshes
Run
the full model using two meshes,
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noticeably different in the localization zones

The two-mesh precaution

# of
elements
FoS

41
4

871

1.9 1.6 1.4

0
2
5

1.4
3

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11

(Waterman 2010)

2D Mohr-Coulomb:
FoS=1.05
3D Mohr-Coulomb:
FoS=1.20

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Table of contents
Introduction
Implications of the ingredients of a
constitutive model

Kinematics
Stress-strain equation
Yield function and strength
Flow rule
Hardening and softening

Conclusions
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Conclusions
Numerical modelling addresses complex
geometries and nonlinear behaviour of rock
masses
Using popular numerical tools at full capacity
probable intermediate between routine 2D
models and involved discontinuum
mechanics formulations
Still, going 3D and into hardening plasticity
may pose several challenges that deserve
careful meditation
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Implications of selecting adequate models for

References
Most important
Potts et al (2002). Guidelines for the
use of advanced numerical analyses.
Thomas Telford, 177 p.
Four papers by Feng & Hudson @
IJRMMS (2004, 2007, 2010, 2010)
Please find the rest of the references in the
paper
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Acknoweldgment:
my colleagues at SRK
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END