AC Circuits

i mL

im

0.0,

r1

m
1
R0

.. r1

R=Ro

f( x )

im0.5

g( x )

R=2Ro
0
0

i mR

00

2 o

iron

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2

(secondary)

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 1

Lecture Outline

Driven Series LCR Circuit:

General solution
Resonance condition
Resonant frequency
Sharpness of resonance = Q
Power considerations
Power factor depends on impedance
Transformers
Voltage changes
Faradays Law in action gives induced primary current.
Power considerations

Text Reference: Chapter 33.4-6

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 2

Phasors

R: V in phase with i

VR Ri R m sin t

C: V lags i by 90

VC

L: V leads i

by 90

VL L

m
sin t
R

iR

Q
m sin t
C

i C C m cos t

di L
m sin t
dt

i L m cos t
L

A phasor is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum value of a quantity (eg V or I)

and which rotates counterclockwise in a 2-d plane with angular velocity . Recall
uniform circular motion:

x r cost

y r sin t

The projections of r (on

the vertical y axis) execute
sinusoidal oscillation.

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 3

Suppose:

Phasors for
L,C,R

i im sin t

VR Ri m sin t

t
t

VC

1
i m cos t
C

t
C

i
VL Li m cos t

i
t

L
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 4

Series LCR
AC Circuit

Back to the original problem: the loop

equation gives:
L

d 2Q

Q
dQ

R
m sin t
2
C
dt
dt

R
C

Assume a solution of the form:

Here all unknowns, (im,) , must be found from the loop eqn; the initial conditions
have been taken care of by taking the emf to be: m sint.

To solve this problem graphically, first write down expressions

for the voltages across R,C, and L and then plot the appropriate
phasor diagram.

i i m sin(t )

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 5

Phasors: LCR
Given: m sin t
Assume:
i i m sin(t )

im
Q cos(t )

di
i m cos(t )
dt

R
C

VR Ri Ri m sin(t )

Q
1

i m cos(t )
C
C
di
VL L Li m cos(t )
dt

VC

From these equations, we can draw the phasor

diagram to the right.

This picture corresponds to a snapshot at t=0. The

projections of these phasors along the vertical axis
are the actual values of the voltages at the given
time.

i mL

im

i mR

Phasors: LCR

i mXL

R
C

i mXC

i mR

The phasor diagram has been relabeled in terms of the

reactances defined from:
X L L

XC

1
C

The unknowns (im,) can now be solved for

graphically since the vector sum of the voltages
VL + VC + VR must sum to the driving
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 7

Lecture 20, ACT 3

A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.

For what frequencies of the voltage

source is the current through the resistor
largest?

(a) small (b) large (c)

1
LC

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 8

Conceptual
Question
A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.

For what frequencies of the voltage

source is the current through the resistor
largest?

(a) small (b) large (c)

1
LC

This is NOT a series RLC circuit. We cannot blindly apply our

techniques for solving the circuit. We must think a little bit.
However, we can use the frequency dependence of the impedances
(reactances) to answer this question.
The reactance of an inductor = XL = L.
The reactance of a capacitor = XC = 1/(C).
Therefore,
in the low frequency limit, X 0 and X .
L

Therefore, as 0, the current will flow mostly through the

inductor; the current through the capacitor approaches 0.

in the high frequency limit, X and X 0 .

L
C
Therefore, as , the current will flow mostly through the
capacitor, approaching a maximum i = /R.

Phasors:LCR

i mXL
m

i mXC
X L L

i mR

X L XC
tan
R

XC

Z R 2 X L XC

i mR

i m(XL -X C)

1
C

2m i 2m R 2 X L X C

im

m
2
Z
R 2 X L XC
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 10

Phasors:Tips

i mXL
This phasor diagram was drawn as a
snapshot of time t=0 with the voltages
being given as the projections along the
y-axis.
Sometimes, in working problems, it is
easier to draw the diagram at a time when
the current is along the x-axis (when i=0).
imXL
m

imR

imXC
Full Phasor Diagram

i mXC

i mR

From this diagram, we can also create a

triangle which allows us to calculate the
impedance Z:

X L XC

Impedance Triangle

Phasors:LCR
We have found the general solution for the driven LCR circuit:

i i m sin(t )

imXL
m

the loop

tan

i mZ

imR

imXC

eqn

im

X L XC
R
m
Z

XL

X L L
1
XC
C

Z R X L XC
2

XL - XC
R

XC
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 12

Lagging & Leading

The phase between the current and the driving emf depends on the
relative magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances.

im

X L L
1
XC
C

X XC
tan L
R

m
Z

XL

XL

XL

R
XC
XL > XC
>0
current
LAGS
applied voltage

XC
XL < X C
<0
current
LEADS
applied voltage

R
XC
XL = XC
=0
current
IN PHASE
applied voltage

Conceptual
Question

The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a

generator with voltage = msint. The time
dependence of the current i which flows in the
circuit is shown in the plot.

How should be changed to

1A bring the current and driving
voltage into phase?

(b) decrease

(a) increase

r1
n

.. r1

i1
1.01 m

R
C

0,

io

f(ix ) 00

1.01-i 1

0
.53

4
x

(c) impossible

1B Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?

(c)
(b) i
(a)
i
i

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 14

6
6.81

Lecture 21, ACT 1

x

The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a

generator with voltage = msint. The time
dependence of the current i which flows in the
circuit is shown in the plot.

How should be changed to

1A bring the current and driving
voltage into phase?

(a) increase

r1
n

.. r1

i1
1.01 m

R
C

0,

io

f(ix ) 00

1.01-i 1

0
.53

(b) decrease

4
x

6
6.81

(c) impossible

From the plot, it is clear that the current is LEADING the applied voltage.
XL
Therefore, the
phasor diagram must
look like this:

XC

Therefore,

XC X L

To bring the current into phase

with the applied voltage, we need
to increase XL and decrease XC.
Increasing will do both!!

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 15

Lecture 21, ACT 1

x

The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a

generator with voltage = msint. The time
dependence of the current i which flows in the
circuit is shown in the plot.

How should be changed to

1A bring the current and driving
voltage into phase?

(a) increase

(b) decrease

r1
n

.. r1

i1
1.01 m

R
C

0,

io

f(ix ) 00

1.01-i 1

0
.53

4
x

(c) impossible

1B Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?

(c)
(b) i
(a)
i

i
The projection
of i along the
vertical axis is
negative here.
no way jose

The sign of i is
correct at t=0.
However, it
soon will become
negative!
nope

This one looks

just right!!
= -30
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 16

6
6.81

Resonance

For fixed R,C,L the current im will be a maximum at the resonant frequency 0
which makes the impedance Z purely resistive.

ie:

im

m
R 2 X L XC

reaches a maximum when:

X L XC

the frequency at which this condition is obtained is given from:

1
1
oL
o
oC
LC

Note that this resonant frequency is identical to the natural

frequency of the LC circuit by itself!

At this frequency, the current and the driving voltage are in

phase!
X XC
tan L
0
R
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 17

Resonance
The current in an LCR circuit depends on the values of the elements and
on the driving frequency through the relation

im

m
R 2 X L XC

im m
m cos
R 1 tan 2
R
Suppose you plot the current versus , the
source voltage frequency, you would get:

m
R0

R=Ro
im
R=2Ro
0

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 18

Power in LCR Circuit

The power supplied by the emf in a series LCR circuit depends on the frequency .
It will turn out that the maximum power is supplied at the resonant frequency 0.

The instantaneous power (for some frequency, ) delivered at

time t is given by:
P( t ) ( t ) i( t ) m sin t i m sin(t )

Remember what
this stands for

The most useful quantity to consider here is not the

instantaneous power but rather the average power delivered in
a cycle.
P( t ) mi m sin t sin(t )

To evaluate the average on the right, we first expand the sin(t) term.
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 19

Power in LCR Circuit

Expanding,
sin t sin(t ) sin t (sin t cos cos t sin )

Taking the averages,

sin t cos t 0

+1

sintcost

(Product of even and odd function = 0)

Generally:

1 2 2
1
sin x
sin xdx

2 0
2
2

-1

Putting it all back together again,

P ( t ) mi m

1/2
0
2
cos sin t sin sin t cos t

P( t )

1
mi m cos
2

+1

sin2t

-1

t 18, Pg 20
Physics 1304: Lecture

Power in LCR Circuit

This result is often rewritten in terms of rms values:

1
rms
m
2

i rms

im
2

P( t ) rmsi rms cos

Power delivered depends on the phase, thepower factor

phase depends on the values of L, C, R, and

therefore...

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 21

Power in RLC
P( t ) rmsi rms cos

Power, as well as current, peaks at = 0. The sharpness of the resonance depends

on the values of the components.

Recall:

m
1
m
im

cos
2
R 1 tan
R
Therefore,

2 rms
P( t )
cos 2
R

We can write this in the following manner (you can do the algebra):

2 rms
x2
x

P( t )
o
R x 2 Q 2 ( x 2 1) 2
introducing the curious factors Q and x...

L o
R

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 22

The Q factor
A parameter Q is often defined to describe the sharpness of
resonance peaks in both mechanical and electrical oscillating
systems. Q is defined as

Q 2

U max
U

where Umax is max energy stored in the system and U is the

energy dissipated in one cycle

period
1 2
For RLC circuit, Umax is (e.g.) U max LI max
2
2
1 2
1 2

And losses only in R, namely U I max RT I max R

2
2
res
This gives

res L
Q
R

And for completeness, note

x
res
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 23

Power in RLC

For Q > few,

res
Q
fwhm
Q=3

2 rms
R0

FWHM

R=Ro

<P>
R=2Ro
0

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 24

Conceptual Question
2

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

What is the relation between the quality

factors, QI and QII , of the two circuits?
2A

(a) QII < QI

(b) QII = QI

R
C

II

(c) QII > QI

2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?

(a) PII < PI

(b) PII = PI

(c) PII > PI

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 25

Lecture 21, ACT 2

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

What is the relation between the quality

factors, QI and QII , of the two circuits?
2A

(a) QII < QI

(b) QII = QI

We know the definition of Q: Q

0L
R

R
C

II

(c) QII > QI

At first glance, it looks like Q is independent of C.

At second glance, we see this cannot be true, since the resonant
frequency o depends on C!

1
LC

Doubling C decreases o by sqrt(2)!

Doubling C decreases Q by sqrt(2)!
Doubling C increases the width of the resonance!
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 26

Lecture 21, ACT 2

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

What is the relation between the quality

factors, QI and QII , of the two circuits?
2A

(a) QII < QI

(b) QII = QI

R
C

II

(c) QII > QI

2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?

(a) PII < PI

(b) PII = PI

(c) PII > PI

At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the circuit is purely

resistive.
Since the resistances in each circuit are the same, the impedances at
the resonant frequency for each circuit are equal.
Therefore, The power delivered by the generator to each circuit is
identical.
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 27

Power Transmission

How can we transport power from power stations to homes? Why do we use high tension lines?

At home, the AC voltage obtained from outlets in this country is 120V at 60Hz.
Transmission of power is typically at very high voltages
( eg ~500 kV)
Transformers are used to raise the voltage for transmission and lower the voltage for use.
Well describe these next.

But why?

Calculate ohmic losses in the transmission lines:

Define efficiency of transmission:

Pout iVin i 2 R
iR Vin
Pin R

1 2

1
Pin
iVin
Vin Vin
V in

Keep R
small
Make
Vin big

Note for fixed input power and line resistance, the inefficiency 1/V2
Example: Quebec to Montreal
1000 km R= 220
suppose Pin = 500 MW

With Vin=735kV, = 80%.

The efficiency goes to zero quickly if
Vin were lowered!
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 28

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 29

Transformers

AC voltages can be stepped up or

stepped down by the use of
transformers.

The AC current in the primary circuit creates a

time-varying magnetic field in the iron

This induces an emf on the secondary

windings due to the mutual inductance of the
two sets of coils.

iron

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2
(secondary)

The iron is used to maximize the mutual inductance. We

assume that the entire flux produced by each turn of the
primary is trapped in the iron.
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 30

Ideal
No resistance losses

Transformers (no load)

All flux contained in iron

Nothing connected on secondary

The primary circuit is just an AC voltage source in series with an

inductor. The change in flux produced in each turn is given by:

d turn V1

dt
N1

iron

The change in flux per turn in the secondary coil is the

same as the change in flux per turn in the primary coil
(ideal case). The induced voltage appearing across the
secondary coil is given by:

V2 N 2

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2

(secondary)

d turn N 2

V1
dt
N1

Therefore,
N2 > N1 secondary V2 is larger than primary V1 (step-up)
N1 > N2 secondary V2 is smaller than primary V1 (step-down)
Note: no load means no current in secondary. The primary current,
termed the magnetizing current is small!

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 31

Ideal

Transformers

with a Load

iron

What happens when we connect a resistive load to

the secondary coil?

Flux produced by primary coil

induces an emf in secondary
emf in secondary produces current i2

V
i2 2
R

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2

(secondary)

This current produces a flux in the secondary coil

N2i2which opposes the original flux -- Lenzs
law

This changing flux appears in the primary

circuit as well; the sense of it is to reduce the
emf in the primary...
However, V1 is a voltage source.
Therefore, there must be an increased
current i1 (supplied by the voltage source) in
the primary which produces a flux N1i1
which exactly cancels the flux produced by
i2.

N2
i1
i2
N1
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 32

Transformers with a Load

iron

With a resistive load in the secondary, the primary current

is given by:

i1

N2
N V
V1
i2 2 2
N1
N1 R N1 / N 2 2 R

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2

(secondary)

V1
N12
Req R 2
i1
N2
This is the equivalent resistance seen by the source.

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 33

Lecture 21, ACT 3

iron

The primary coil of an ideal transformer is connected to an AC

voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary.

3A

If V1 = 120 V, what is the potential drop across

the resistor R ?

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

(a) 30 V
3B

(b) 120 V

N2

(secondary)

(c) 480 V

If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R,

what is the current in the primary ?

(a) 8 A

(b) 16 A

(c) 32 A

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 34

Lecture 21, ACT 3

iron

The primary coil of an ideal transformer is connected to an AC

voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary.

3A

If V1 = 120 V, what is the potential drop across

the resistor R ?

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

(a) 30 V

(b) 120 V

N2

(secondary)

(c) 480 V

The ratio of turns, (N2/N1) = (200/50) = 4

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the ratio
of turns, (V2/V1) = (N2/N1)
Therefore, (V2/V1) = 480 V

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 35

iron

Lecture 21, ACT 3

The primary coil of an ideal transformer is connected to an AC

voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary.

If V1 = 120 V, what is the potential drop across

the resistor R ?

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

3A

(a) 30 V

N2

(secondary)

(c) 480 V

(b) 120 V

The ratio of turns, (N2/N1) = (200/50) = 4

The ratio (V2/V1) = (N2/N1). Therefore, (V2/V1) = 480 V

3B

If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R, what

is the current in the primary ?

(a) 8 A

(c) 32 A

(b) 16 A

Gee, we didnt talk about power yet.

But, lets assume energy is conservedsince it usually is around here
Therefore, 960 W should be produced in the primary
P1 = V1 I1 implies that 960W/120V = 8 A
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 36

Transformers with a Load

iron

To get that last ACT, you had to use a

general philosophy -- energy
conservation.
An expression for the RMS power flow
looks like this:

Prms V1rmsi1rms

V1

V2

N1
(primary)

N2

(secondary)

N1
N
V2 rms 2 i 2 rms V2 rmsi 2 rms
N2
N1

Note: This equation simply says that all power delivered by the
generator is dissipated in the resistor ! Energy conservation!!

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 37

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 38