Module V

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Getting data ready for analysis

Processing data for being analysed
Data cleansing
Editing data
Checking for blank response, incomplete, illegible,
logically incorrect
Giving necessary correction
Necessary more in the case of open-ended questions
Field editing and desk editing
Handling blank response
May leave blank inadvertently or purposefully
May not understand the question, do not know the
answer, not willing to answer, indifferent to the
research
Less than 10% is the threshold limit
If 25% of questions are unattended that
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questionnaire is to be
discarded

Methods to handle blank responses

1.In the case of an interval-scaled item, the mid point
can be assigned to blank response
2.The computer can be allowed to ignore the item
(but reduce the number of samples)
3.Assign the mean value of the entire responses to
that item
4.Assign mean value of the entire responses of that
respondent to all other questions measuring that
variable
5.Assign a random number with in the range of that
scale
6.Allow the analytical software to treat missing
numbers (SPSS)
Coding
.Assigning numbers of symbols to responses
.Make ease for data entry and analysis
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.Pre-coding & Post-coding

Categorization
Several items measuring a particular concepts are
grouped together
The various items measuring the same concept are
to be taken together
The responses of negatively worded questions
(questions with negative tones) to be reversed
For: if the actual codes range from 1 (being lowest)
7 (being highest), for negative questions (7; being
the lowest & 1; being the highest)
Entering data
Keying in raw data manually into database
platforms
Excel, MS Access, SPSS
Spreadsheet format: Row represents a case &
column represents a variable
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Sekaran P. 304 table

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Refer: Sekaran, U: Research Methods
for Business, 4th edn,

Data analysis
Three objectives:
Getting a feel for the data, Testing goodness of data &
hypothesis testing
Getting feel for the data:
Knowing the general attributes about the data
Central tendency, dispersion, variance, frequency
distribution, tables and figures, correlation
Measure of central tendency and SD show how
clustered or dispersed the responses are
Testing goodness of data
Lends credibility to the data
Reliability - Cronbachs Alpha
Cronbachs Alpha measures
the internal consistency or
reliability of
responses (data)
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 Named after Lee Cronbach (1951)

Conceptually related to correlation, testing the
intercorrelations
Computed in terms of average intercorrelations
Good reliability when Alpha co-efficient is 0.7 or
above, as a rule of thumb
The closer the Alpha to 1.0 , the higher the internal
consistency
Other reliability measures: split-half reliability coefficient, parallel form reliability & test-retest
reliability
Hypothesis Testing
Attempt to prove or disprove the supposition (a
predicted result) made in the beginning of the
study
The test statistic s are: t-test, ANOVA, Chi-square &
regression
Refer:
Sekaran, U: Research Methods for Business, 4 edn,
th

pp. 306 - 308

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Choosing appropriate statistical techniques

Parametric
Metric data
(Interval, ratio)
Descriptiv
e
Mean,
Range
,
SD,
GM,
HM

Inferential
t- tests
Product
moment
correlatio
n
ANOVA
Regressio
n
Factor
Analysis
COefficient
of
variation

Non-Parametric
Non-metric
data
(nominal,
Descriptiv Ordinal)
Inferential
e
Percentag
Chi-square
Binomial
e,
Percentile
Rank-order
,
correlation
Median Parametric Non-parametric
Attributes
Assumed Mode
Normal

distribution

Homogeneo
us
Ratio or
Interval

Assumed variance
Typical data
Data set
relationships
Usual central
measure

Any
Any

Ordinal or Nominal

Independent

Any

Mean

Median

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Can draw

Hypothesis Tests
Parametric
Metric data
(Interval, ratio)
One
sample
t-test

Two samples

Z test
Independe
nt samples
Twogroup ttest
Z-test

Paired
samples
Paired
t-test

Non-Parametric
Non-metric
data
(nominal,
Ordinal)
One
Two samples
sample
Chi-square
Kolmogoro
v- Smirnov
(SK)
Runs
Binomial
Paired
Independe
samples
nt samples
Chi-square
Sign
MannWilcoxon
Mcnemar
Whitney
Meidan
Chi-square
K-S

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Refer: Malhotra & Dash: Marketing
Research , 6th edn, pp.

Procedure for Hypothesis Test

1. Formulate null (H0) and alternative (H1)
hypotheses
2. Select appropriate test statistic, based on data
types
3. Select a significance level, 0.05 will be ideal
4. Calculate the statistic, assuming H0 is true
5. Compare the calculated value with critical (table)
value: if the absolute value of calculated test
statistic is greater than the critical value reject
the null hypothesis, and vice versa
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