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ECEg4241
Chapter 2:
Illumination
Instructor: G/tsadik Teklay
M.Sc. In Electrical Power
Engineering
Adigrat University
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
gteklay@gmail.com
@ 2009 E.C
Introduction
In ancient times, much of the indoor work done by humans
depended upon daylight being available to light the interior.
Today almost all buildings have electric lighting installed and
we automatically assume that we can work indoors or out of
doors at any time of the day or night, and that light will
always be available.
Good lighting is important in all building interiors:
helps work to be done efficiently and safely.
creates pleasant and comfortable surroundings.
The fundamental goal of artificial lighting design:
to provide sufficient light for the performance of visual
tasks to enable the person to do these tasks efficiently and
accurately
to create a comfortable environment with a minimum of
Contd
Contd
Furthermore; lighting
should be energy
efficient.
Significant portion of
electrical energy utilized in
commercial, industrial and
residential buildings is for
lighting.
S Hence; efficient lighting
system means efficient
electrical system of the
Contd
Why we use lighting?
s To help us find our way around, to assist
visibility
s To extend/increase the number of useful hours
in the day
s To assist the performance of a visual task,
increase productivity
s To provide a safer environment
s To display objects and / or control how they
appear, improve sales
s To attract attention
s To improve employee working conditions
Contd
It is also possible to use lighting:
to reduce fatigue, encourage concentration
or to improve awareness or decision-making.
To create an atmosphere of comfort,
relaxation or trust or help people recover
from illness or fatigue.
All of these elements are present in a good
lighting design, but the relative importance of
each will vary according to the nature and
purpose of the space being illuminated.
Contd
Lighting is good lighting:
when it provides adequate illuminance to
enable the task to be performed efficiently,
When it is perceived as comfortable,
When people have a high level of satisfaction.
Good lighting design is not simply about achieving a
required illuminance on the working plane, it is about
creating and controlling the lit environment.
Contd
A GOOD LIGHTING DESIGN SHOULD
Look good!
Provide the proper amount of light in every room.
Be built and constructed within budget, code, and
other constraints.
Be environmentally responsible.
Respond to the Architecture and Interior Design
Produce good color
Achieve the desired moods of each space
Be able to control the lights
What is light?
Light is:
that part of the electromagnetic spectrum
that is perceived by our eyes.
the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum to which the eye responds.
This visible portion lies in the
wavelength between 380 and 780 nm.
Light is not what we see, but what we see by.
Exactly what we perceive depends upon the
kind and quality of light available.
Contd
The color of light is
determined by its
wavelength.
shortest wavelengths
(380 to 450 nm)
produce the sensation
of violet.
longest wavelengths
(630 to 770 nm)
produce the sensation
of red.
blue (450 to 490 nm),
green (490 to 560 nm),
yellow (560 to 590
Contd
The region with slightly longer wavelengths
immediately adjacent to the red end of the visible
spectrum is known as infrared.
And the region with relatively shorter wavelengths
immediately adjacent to the violet end of the visible
spectrum is the ultraviolet.
Neither infrared nor UV is visible to the human eye; but
their effect on humans is very important, and neither
can be ignored in lighting applications.
incandescent bulb produces a large percentage of
infrared energy, which can be very uncomfortable
to anyone exposed to it continuously for even a few
hours.
Contd
Light has a triple effect:
Light for visual functions
Illumination of task area
in conformity with relevant
standards
Light creating biological
effects
Supporting peoples
circadian rhythm
Stimulating or relaxing
Light for emotional
perception
Lighting enhancing
architecture
Creating scenes and
Accommodation
Adaptation
Spectral luminous response
External factors to the eye that affect the seeing process:
Size of object
Brightness of the object
Contrast
Time
Contd
Accommodation
this process enables to focus on an object
regardless of the distance.
It does this by adjusting the curvature of the
lens with ciliary muscles.
For near objects, the lens must be rounded
by the contraction of the muscles;
when focusing on distant objects, the lens
must be flattened.
Contd
Adaptation
this process enables the eye to adjust to a wide
range of lighting levels, on the order of 1 million
to 1.
In a very dim light the pupil opens wide, while
in very bright light the pupil contracts to a
much smaller size.
As we have experienced, the process of
adaptation takes time, particularly when going
from a bright area to a dark area.
The lighting designer must always take this into
consideration when lighting adjacent areas.
Contd
Contd
Since the eyes must continually adjust to the
conditions imposed on them, eye fatigue will result if
they must do this too often and too quickly.
Therefore, poor quality or insufficient quantity of
light can seriously a persons ability to perform
efficiently.
External factors
Size of object
Brightness of the object
Contrast
Time
Contd
Size of object
the larger the object the more easily it can be seen.
Visual acuity is a measure of the smallest detail that can
easily be seen.
It is a function of the visual angle, that is, the angle
subtended at the eye by the object.
By bringing a small object closer to the eye, a person is
increasing the visual angle in order to see it more clearly.
Increasing lighting levels will markedly increase visual
acuity.
Contd
Contd
Contrast
equally important in clearly seeing an object is the
contrast between it and its immediate background.
As an example, the print on this page is dark
lettering against a near white background. If the
same printing were on dark gray paper, then the
printing would be harder to see.
Where poor contrast conditions cannot be avoided,
higher lighting levels are required to clearly see an
object.
Contd
Time
Luminous Flux
Luminous Intensity
Illuminance
Luminance
Color rendering and CRI
Steradian
Typical Values
Candle 12lm
60W incandescent
750 lm
lamp
1WLED
130 lm
in lux (lx)
Full-moon at
night
Outdoor
Disability
lighting
Domestic
lighting
Office lighting
Sunny day
0,5 lux
20 lux
100-200 lux
300-500 lux
100000 lux
Luminance (L)
also called brightness
Luminance L is the luminous intensity emitted by the
surface area of 1 cm (or 1 m) of the light source (the
intensity of light emitted from a surface per unit area in a
given direction).
Mathematically it is L=I/S where I is the luminous intensity
and S is the area of the source surface perpendicular to
the given direction.
It specifies the brightness of a surface and is essentially
dependent on its reflectance (finish and colour).
Unit: cd/m or cd/cm
The luminance value indicates glare and discomfort when
we look at the lighting source.
It is usually associated with light sources and glossy
Luminous efficacy ()
Luminous efficacy of a light source is the ratio of its
luminous flux output in lumens to its power input in
Watts. Its unit is lumens per watt.
Incandescent and fluorescent lamps efficacy
generally increase with their rating increase.
Glare
Glare is the sensation produced by
brightness levels within the visual field
that are considerably greater than the
brightness to which the eyes are adapted.
glare is any light source either direct or
reflected that reduces short term or long
term visual performance.
Direct glare: caused by brightness of
the luminaries
reflected glare: contrast reduction
caused by reflection of high brightness
from glossy surfaces.
Glare can be leveled as discomfort
glare and disability glare.
Discomfort glare: causes only
visual discomfort.
disability glare cause actual
Colour Appearancecontd
Colour Rendering
The extent to which a light source is capable of
making objects appear their true colour is known as
colour rendering.
Lamps vary in their ability to render colours correctly.
incandescent lamps emit all colours of the
spectrum. render almost all colours accurately.
low pressure (SOX) sodium lamps give out nearly all
their light in the yellow/orange part of the
spectrum, so will only render yellow/orange colours
properly. Other colours appear dull and lifeless
under SOX lighting.
Low pressure sodium lights are often chosen for
tasks that do not require good colour rendition such
environments.
Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter, improving the
surface when normal to the incident light, then the area over
which the light is spread is one unit square.
If the surface is now rotated an angle from the normal, then
the same amount of light has to spread over an area that
has increased by the ratio of , and therefore the density of
the light (E) has decreased by the ratio of .
Light sources
The primary purpose of the electric light source is to convert
electrical energy into light energy.
The measure of how well the source performs this function is
its luminous efficacy expressed in lumens emitted per
watt of power consumed.
Types: with regard to method of operation:
Incandescent (Passage of an electric current through a
filament)
Electric Discharge (Passage of an electric current
through a vapour)
Low intensity: (1) fluorescent (mercury vapor) and (2)
Sodium Vapor
High intensity: (1) mercury vapor, (2) metal halide
(multivapor), and (3) sodium vapor
Incandescent Lamps
The incandescent lamp produces light by the passage of an
electric current through a filament, which heats it to
incandescence, that is, to the point where some of the energy
is emitted in the visible region (i.e. until it glows).
When the filament gets hot enough, it radiates visible light.
However, the percentage of input energy emitted as light is
relatively low, and the majority of energy is emitted as heat. In
spite of this major disadvantage, the incandescent lamp is still
widely used.
Incandescent LampContd
Bulb:
the enclosed glass envelope that seals in the
filament is the bulb.
Its purpose is to keep air away from the filament so
that it doesn't burn (oxidize with oxygen in the air).
A mixture of gasses inside of the bulb increases the
pressure inside and decrease the evaporation rate
of tungsten, helping the filament have longer
lifetime.
Furthermore it prevents the electricity from jumping
or shorting.
The gas mixture is usually made up of argon and
nitrogen.
Incandescent LampContd
The bulb can be clear or frosted (painted internally).
Lamps with clear glass bulbs are used when a point source of
light is required for good optical control. However, these types of
lamps are extremely bright and require good shielding if they are
not to be annoying.
For most applications, lamps with the bulb treated to diffuse the light
are used. This considerably reduces the brightness or glare. The
inside surface of the bulb is either etched with acid (inside frosted)
or coated with white silica.
Bulbs can also be treated to produce colored lamps for decorative
lighting.
The various shapes that the bulb can have are shown in figure below.
Incandescent LampContd
Lamp Designation
A lamp designation consists of a number to indicate the
wattage, a shape code and a number to indicate the
approximate major diameter.
Example: 60A19
60: Wattage (60 W)
A: Bulb shape
19: Maximum bulb diameter, in eighths of an inch.
Some shapes are for practical reasons, such as the R type,
which is shaped like a parabola in order to beam the light;
others are for decorative purposes, such as the F type.
The overall diameter of the bulb is designated by a number
given in eighths of an inch. Thus, the designation R40 indicates
the R shape with a diameter of 40/8 or 5 inches.
Incandescent LampContd
Bases:
The base provides both the means of making the electrical
connections to the filament and the means of supporting
the lamp in the socket.
The different types used are shown in figure below.
Incandescent LampContd
Filament:
is the most critical part of the lamp and must be
designated to give the maximum light output at
its rated voltage and wattage, and yet still
provide a satisfactory life (that is, hours to burnout).
Tungsten, which has the properties of high
melting point and low rate of evaporation, is used
almost exclusively to make filaments.
The majority of lamps have coiled filaments so
that heat can be concentrated in a smaller space.
The larger lamps have double-coiled filaments
to increase efficiency and reduce their size.
note that:
The values of in the
column headed
lumens per watt increase
as the rated wattage
increases
This is important to
remember when designing
a lighting layout using
incandescent lamps.
The wattage of the lamps
selected should be as high
as possible, consistent
Contd
The rated life for which a lamp is designed must balance all
the economic factors.
One very important factor is the cost of the energy
consumed by the lamp during its life.
For general-service lamps, the accepted standard for
rated life is 1000 hours.
Thus, a 100 watt lamp will consume 100 kilowatt-hours of
energy over its rated life, which, at a cost of 0.05per
kwh, amounts to 5.00. the cost of the lamp is only
approximately 15% of that amount.
To increase life at the expense of light output means that,
to provide the same level of lighting, more lamps
consuming more energy would be required. This would
not be economically justified.
Contd
The preceding does not take into account the cost of the labor
to replace a burned out lamp.
For these cases where the lamp is very difficult to replace
(with resulting higher labor charges) and where the lighting
level is not critical, long-life lamps (for example, 5000
hours) may be the better selection.
The meaning of the published data on rated lamp life must be
understood. The data refer to the average or mean life of a
group from a specific type and rating of lamp.
This group of lamps is operated under a controlled set of
test conditions, and the rated life is determined by the
elapsed time to the point when 50% of the total
number are still burning (that is, 50% have burned
Operating Characteristics of
Incandescent Lamps
The effect of voltage variations and lamp
lumen depreciation are the chief operating
characteristics of concern.
Contd
Typical values of lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) for
incandescent lamps are shown in table above.
General-Service Lamps:
Reflectorized Lamps:
These lamps combine in one unit the light
source and a very efficient sealed-in
reflector.
There are two types designated PAR and
R.
The PAR lamp has a molded reflector
to which a separate lens is then
attached.
The R lamp uses a less expensive, onepiece blown-glass bulb, which can
result in a less accurate beam pattern
than for the molded type.
Both types can have either spot
(narrow) or flood (wide) beams.
Wattages for the type R range from 30
to 1000 watts, and for the type PAR
they range from 75 to 1000 watts.
Tungsten-halogen Lamps:
These lamps are a high-pressure incandescent lamp containing a
halogen gas such as iodine which allows the filament to be operated
at a higher temperature than an incandescent lamp, increasing its
efficacy.
These lamps are sometimes referred to as quartz halogen lamps, as
the envelope is almost always made not from glass, but from quartz,
which can better withstand the high temperatures at which these
lamps operate (although some lower wattage lamps that do not
generate too much heat, use 'hard glass'. This is a cheaper material
which has thermal properties between soda glass and quartz). They
have a long tubular quartz envelope, as shown below.
Contd
Inside the bulb, the high-temperature chemical reaction
involving tungsten and the halogen gas (iodine) recycles
evaporated particles of tungsten back onto the filament
surface through the so called halogen cycle.
This effectively reduces the deposits of the tungsten on the
envelope surface, which in turn increases the maintenance of
light over the life of the lamp and allows for a rated life of
2000 hours.
The double-ended type of lamp also has the advantage that it
can be easily designed for operation at higher voltages. For the
higher voltages, the filament diameter can remain the same,
and instead the filament length can be increased (a longer tube)
to provide the required higher filament resistance.
A major application for these lamps is floodlighting.
Contd
The various types of the electric discharge
lamps differ mainly in:
the size of the lamp tube,
the operating pressure within the tube,
and
the metal used for the vapor
Ballasts
A fundamental characteristic of
A fundamental characteristic of
the electric current through the
vapor, called an arc, is that it has
a negative volt-ampere
relationship; as the current
increases, the resistance of the arc
decreases.
If
a constant voltage were to be
applied to the ends of the lamp,
once the arc was struck (that is,
electrons started to flow), the
lamp current would very quickly
increase to a destructive value.
Therefore, the lamp circuit must
have a device that can limit the
current to a constant value that is
safely handled by the lamp. This
device is referred to as a ballast.
A ballast can be as simple as a
high-inductance coil in series with
the lamp.
Most types of
Contd
electric
discharge
lamps may not
be started
using the
standard volts.
Either
because of the
length of the
tube or the
pressure within
the tube, this
voltage (even
though it
peaks) is not
high enough to
initially ionize
the gas in the
An
autotransformer
is required to
raise the voltage
to a value that
will ionize the
gas and strike
the arc.
Thus the lamp
circuit is not as
simple as it is for
the
incandescent
lamp.
Contd
A ballast
is a
device
used with
a gas
discharge
lamp to
provide
the
necessary
starting
and
operating
electrical
Contd
The conventional ballast has a magnetic core
and windings, and losses are associated with its
operation. These losses reduce the overall
efficiency of converting the electrical energy to
light energy.
Ballast losses can amount to 15% of the total
power input to the system.
A recent development is the introduction of
electronic ballasts using solid-state technology.
One advantage of this new type is the reduction
of ballast losses. As the cost of these units comes
down and as their reliability improves, they no
doubt will start to replace the conventional
magnetic core ballasts.
Contd
The stroboscopic effect can create a very dangerous situation
or accident with regard to rotating equipment. This is the
main reasons Fluorescent lamps are not preferred in
industries.
There are several
ways by which the
problem can be
minimized.
Fluorescent lamps
The fluorescent lamp is a low-intensity
type of electric discharge lamp using
vapor.
mercury
Fluorescent
lampswork by ionizing
mercury vapor in a glass tube. As
discussed in the previous section,
electrons are propelled at extremely high
speeds between the electrodes at each
The
resulting from the collision
end energy
of the lamp.
between the electrons and the mercury
atoms, because of the very low pressure, is
mainly emitted in the ultraviolet region
(i.e. photons will be emitted at UV
To
convert the ultraviolet into visible energy,
frequencies).
the inside of the lamp tube is coated with
phosphors. The ultraviolet radiation
activates the phosphors, causing them to
give off light, or to fluoresce/glow; hence
the name of the lamp. See figure below.
Contd
Approximately 90% of the
total light output of the
lamp is produced by
fluorescence;
The remaining 10% is
produced directly by the
visible lines in the
mercury spectrum.
A small amount of an
inert gas, usually
argon, is added to the
arc tube to facilitate
starting the lamp.
Contd
F32T8
F: a fluorescent lamp. The F may
be followed by other letters.
FO, for example, identifies a
high-output lamp.
32: wattage
T8: has a tubular body 8/8ths of
a inch in diameter, that is 1 inch
in diameter.
TL841: a color designation. The
"8" indicates a CRI in the 80's
and the 41 a CCT of 4100. Older
abbreviations, such as "CW" for
"Cool White", may appear in this
position.
ALTO: a proprietary
designation. Other manufacturers
have designations with similar
meanings, e.g., "ECO".
Contd
There are also special lamps with circular tubes
and U-shaped tubes.
Contd
The types and shapes of the bases at each end of the lamp
are shown below.
Lighting Design
Lighting design is the planning of our visual environment.
Good lighting design aims to create perceptual conditions which allow
us to work effectively and orient ourselves safely while promoting a
feeling of well-being in a particular environment and at the same time
enhancing that same enviroment in an aesthetic sense.
Lighting design is not a completely scientific process because it
involves human perception, tastes, and moods.
Satisfactory lighting for children and youth might not be
acceptable for seniors because of differences in their visual acuity.
In addition, the colors and textures of floors, walls, and ceilings
affect the selection of appropriate luminaires.
Contd
The design of a lighting system for an interior space involves many
variable factors.
the size and shape of the space;
the types of finishes on the ceilings, walls, and floors; the details
of the construction;
the economic considerations of both the initial and the operating
costs;
the compatibility of the lighting system with the architectural
design; and
the type of activities that will be carried out in the space.
Contd
The principal factors to be considered for satisfactory room lighting
are the following.
Room dimensions: ceiling height and floor area
Architectural or structural features that can affect lighting
Reflectance, diffusion, and absorption of light by ceilings, walls,
floor, and furnishings
Proper selection of luminaires by evaluating their light
distribution, efficiency, dec-\orative value, elimination of glare,
and economy
Height and spacing of luminaires within rooms based on room
function
Contd
In general, lighting design procedure can be seen as having
three steps.
Assessing the illumination level for the task;
Making calculations to determine the number of luminaries
required and their distribution in the space.
Selection of luminaries type based on light quality,
architecture of building, economics, etc.
There are two different criteria in the design of a lighting
system: Quantity and Quality.
This topic concentrates on the means of by which the
quantity of light is determined (that is, how many
luminaires are required to properly light the space).
The quality of light (the comfort of the seeing environment)
is discussed very briefly.
Illumination Selection
The lighting levels required to efficiently perform specific
tasks can vary widely.
There are many factors involved in the seeing process. It has
not been easy to establish recommendations for lighting
levels.
Many research studies have been carried out. On the basis
of these studies, the IES has published recommended
illuminance values.
Until 1979, a single value was recommended for each
specific task. However, in that year the IES adopted a
more flexible approach that recommends a range of
illumination values for each specific task accompanied
by a weighing factor guidance system.
These weighing factors take into account the object
How to use the weighing factor:1. When the algebraic sum of the weighting factors is 3 to -2 use the lowest value
2. If the algebraic sum of the weighting factor it is 1 to +1 use the middle value, and
3. If the algebraic sum is 2 to 3 use the highest value.
Example:
Determine the Illumination level for technical school lecture room
requiring medium pencil handwriting based on IESNA.
Category E with a range of 500-750-1000 fits this type of activity.
The total weighing factor: Workers age (consider students under 40)
1, speed and accuracy (not important as errors will not lead to cost
and no safety hazard) 1, and reflectance of task background (paper
at 70%) 0 resulting in total 2. Therefore; the low value of the range
can be (500 lux) chosen.
Lighting calculation