CONTENTS

Unit-III

Part I

Part II

OPTICAL DETECTORS
OPTICAL CONNECTORS

Part I
OPTICAL DETECTORS
Fiber Alignment
Fiber splices,
Fiber connectors
Expanded beam connectors
Fiber couplers.

Introducti
on

Optical receivers convert optical signal (light) to

electrical signal (current/voltage) Hence referred O/E
Converter.

Photo detector is the fundamental element of optical

receiver, followed by amplifiers and signal
conditioning circuitry.

There are several photo detector types:

Photodiodes
Phototransistors
Photon multipliers
Photo-resistors etc.

Requirements for optical detector

Compatible physical dimensions (small size)

Low sensitivity (high responsivity) at the desired

wavelength and low responsivity elsewhere
wavelength selectivity

Low noise and high gain

Short response time high bandwidth

Insensitive to temperature variations

Long operating life and low cost

Low bias voltages

Stability of performance characteristics

Optical detection
principle

The conversion of an optical into an electrical signal requires the

absorption of the incident light. The absorption leads to an excitation of an
electron from the valence to the conduction band. What is left in the
valence band is a vacancy, which we call a hole. Therefore, we speak
about the photo-generation of electron-hole pairs, because the absorption
always leads to the generation of a hole and an electron. (That does not
necessary mean that both carriers contribute to the electronic transport,
but the generation creates both species.)
If now a photon gets absorbed in
the material the electron-hole pairs
have to be separated by an electric
field. The energy of the photon has to
be

sufficiently

high

to

excite

an

electron from the valence to the

conduction band.

Photogeneration of an electron hole p

Absorptio
n

The absorption of a photon produces an electron hole-pair and

thus a photocurrent. The absorption of the photons depends on
the absorption coefficient in the medium. The absorption
coefficient is strongly wavelength dependent. The photocurrent
caused by the absorption of photons can be calculated by

Where P0 is the optical power, is the wavelength of the incident

light, h is the
Planck constant, and e is the elementary charge.

The term R accounts for the reflection at the interface of the

detector and air,

(1-R) is the light absorbed in the detector and the exponential

Absorption coefficient
The absorption coefficient strongly depends on the
wavelength. This is shown in the figure for some common
semiconductor materials. We can distinguish the materials in
terms of direct and indirect semiconductor materials. We
already discussed that direct semiconductors are the preferred
materials for the realization of optical sources like LEDs and
semiconductor laser diodes. Silicon and germanium are the best
know candidates out of the family of indirect semiconductors.

(Optical absorption for some common semiconductor photodiode

materials (silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, indium gallium
arsenide and indium gallium arsenide phosphide).

Direct and indirect absorption

Silicon and germanium have direct and indirect optical transitions but the
lowest energetic transition is an indirect optical transition. The fact that
silicon and germanium are indirect semiconductors leads to the strong
wavelength dependent absorption of the material. The direct semiconductors
exhibit a sharp transition in the optical absorption.

Based on the absorption coefficient you can see what material is suitable for
what kind of wavelength region. For example, in the case of silicon the optical
bandgap at room temperature is 1.14eV, which corresponds to a wavelength
of 1100nm. Up to 1100nm silicon is still absorbing even though the
absorption coefficient for wavelength >1000nm is already relatively low. That
means silicon is not suitable as an optical detector for an DWDM system
which operates at a wavelength of 1550nm. Silicon is transparent for such a
wavelength. The behavior of germanium is different. The optical bandgap of
germanium is 0.67eV, which corresponds to a cut-off wavelength of more
than 1850nm. However, the absorption coefficient is already very low for
such a high wavelength.

Direct and indirect absorption

contd
Germanium detectors are reasonable sensitive
up to a wavelength of 1600nm. Therefore,
germanium can be (theoretically) used as an
optical detector for DWDM systems. However,
due to the small optical bandgap the leakage
current

of

germanium

diodes

is

very

high.Gallium arsenide has an direct optical

bandgap of 1.43eV. It can be used for the
manufacturing of GaAs based LEDs and laser
diodes in the short wave band. In order to
increase the absorption in the infrared part of
the spectrum, which is necessary for the
optical

communication system, we have to

add indium to the

(Overview of the
bandgaps of
some photodiode
materials.)

Quantum
efficiency

The quantum efficiency is defined as the fraction of

incident photons which are absorbed by the photodetector
and generate electrons which are collected at the detector
terminals:

Where rp is the incident photon rate (photons per second)

and re is the corresponding electron rate (electrons per
second).
One of the major factors which influences the quantum
efficiency is the

Responsivity
The expression for quantum efficiency does not involve photon
energy and therefore the responsivity R is often of more use when
characterizing the performance of a photodetector. It is defined as:

where Ip is the output photocurrent in amperes and Po is the

incident optical power in watts. (i.e. output optical power from the
fiber).
The responsivity is a useful parameter as it gives the transfer
characteristic of the detector (i.e. photocurrent per unit incident
optical power).
The spectral sensitivity can be derived from the quantum efficiency
as follows:
The incident photon rate rp may be written in terms of incident
The electron rate is given by:
optical power and the photon energy as:

where e is the charge on an electron. Thus from Eq. (8.4) the

responsivity may be
written as:
The frequency f of the incident photons is related to their
wavelength and the velocity of light in air c, by:

It may be noted that the responsivity is directly proportional to the

quantum efficiency at a particular wavelength.

It can be seen that the responsivity is increasing with the

wavelength of the incident photons. The difference between the
ideal and the real diode can be explained by thermal losses for lower
wavelengths and a reduced absorption coefficient for higher
wavelengths.

Responsivity of an ideal and a real silicon

photodiode.

Example 1

Example 2

Long-wavelength cutof
It is essential when considering the intrinsic absorption process that
the energy of incident photons be greater than or equal to the
bandgap

energy

Eg

of

the

material

used

to

fabricate

the

photodetector. Therefore, the photon energy:

Thus the threshold for detection, commonly known as the longwavelength cutoff
point c, is:

It is important to note that the above criterion is only applicable to

intrinsic

photodetectors.

expression

but

are

Extrinsic

not

photodetectors

currently

used

in

violate
optical

this
fiber

Operating principle of Photodiodes

The electron-hole pairs generated in a
photodiode are separated by the
electric field. The electric field
distribution in the diode is determined
by an internal and an external electric
field component. The internal field is
created by the build-in potential which
leads to the formation of a depletion
region. The build-in potential is formed
due to the difference in the Fermi level
in the p- and the n-region. The
external electrical field is due to the
external applied bias voltage.
We try to keep the electric field in the
depletion region as high as possible to
extract all photo-generated carriers. (Operation principle of a
Only the extracted electron hole pairs photodiode.A reverse bias
contribute to the overall photocurrent. voltage is applied to the
pn photodiode.)

PN-diodes
The pn-junction is the first diode structure which we will discuss. The
photogenerated electron hole pairs in the depletion region of the
diode contribute to the overall photocurrent. A pn-diode like all other
diodes can be operated under short circuit conditions or under
reverse bias voltage. Depending on the applied material the
quantum efficiency of the diode might be slightly higher for reverse
bias voltage. Furthermore, the transient response might be faster.
The signal to noise ratio of the diode is mainly defined by the applied
material. The smaller the optical band gap and the higher the
number of electronic defects in the material the higher the leakage
current.
Due to the fact the depletion region is very thin (depends on the
applied reverse bias voltage and the doping levels in the p- and the
n-region) the quantum efficiency of a pn-diode is usually not very
high. Most of the light that is absorbed
will simply not contribute to the overall photocurrent.
In order to extend the region of carrier extraction an intrinsic layer or
a slightly

PN-diodes
As a consequence the depletion region is extended across the
intrinsic or lightly doped layer and therefore more photo-generated
carriers contribute to the photocurrent. The pin-diode can be realized
as an homo-junction or a heterojunction. If the structure is realized in
silicon the device will be usually a homojunction. Under such
conditions all three layers (p-,i- and n-region) have the same optical
band gap. Depending on the application the thickness and the
individual layers can be adjusted.
The thicker the i-layer the further the
sensitivity can be extend in the near
infrared part of the optical spectrum.
If there is only an interest in
detecting blue or green light the ilayer can be kept short. The pin diode
shown on this slide is a crystalline
silicon pin diode. Therefore, the diode
is only sensitive up to a wavelength
of 1100nm. In such a case the i-layer
Typical silicon pin diode.
would be already relatively thick
(typically a few 100m.)

PN-diodes
Typical materials used for the three optical communication bands:

Short wave band (800nm 900nm)

Silicon pin diodes are the best choice for the short wave band. The
diodes are very inexpensive, reliable and easy to handle.
Medium Wave band (1250 nm - 1350nm)
In this band germanium and different compound semiconductors are
of interest. Germanium has a lower band gap energy of 0.67eV, so
that it can theoretically be used up to 1600nm (but it is typically not
used). Indium gallium arsenide phosphide (InGaAsP) is an
alternative. The material has an optical band gap of 0.89eV
(depending on the composition of the material) and is perfectly
suitable for the medium wavelength band. Of course all diodes
based on compound semiconductors are significantly more
expensive in manufacturing.

P-i-N-diodes
Long Wave Band (1500nm - 1600 nm)
In order to allow operation at longer wavelengths where the light
penetrates more deeply into the semiconductor material, a wider
depletion region is necessary. To achieve this the n-type material is
doped so lightly that it can be considered intrinsic, and to make a
low resistance contact a highly doped n-type (n+) layer is added.
This creates a pin (or PIN) structure.

(The pin photodiode showing the combined absorption and

depletion region)

Type of P-i-N-diodes
The front-illuminated photodiode
The side-illuminated photodiode

(a)Structure of a front-illuminated silicon pin photodiode.

(b)Structure of a side-illuminated (parallel to junction) pin
photodiode

Speed of response and traveling-wave

photodiodes

Three main
photodiode.

factors

limit

the

speed

of

response

of

Drift time of carriers through the depletion region.

Diffusion time of carriers generated outside the depletion

region.

Where Dc is the minority carrier diffusion

coefficient.
Time constant incurred by the capacitance of the photodiode with
its load.

Example 3

Semiconductor photodiodes with

internal gain
Avalanche photodiodes
One way of increasing the sensitivity of the receiver is amplification.
APDs amplify the signal during the detection process. The operating
principle of a APD is based on the avalanche effect, where a highly
accelerated electron excites another electron due to impact
ionization.
However, in the first step a photon has to be absorbed and a
electron-hole pair has to be generated. The device consists of two
regions. In region 1 of the device the electron hole pairs are
generated and separated. In region 2 of the device the carriers are
accelerated and impact ionized.

(a) Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain)

region.
(b) Carrier pair multiplication in the gain region of an
avalanche photodiode

Semiconductor photodiodes with

internal gain

Silicon reach through avalanche photodiodes

(a)Structure of a silicon RAPD.

(b)(b) The field distribution in the RAPD showing the gain
region across the pn+ junction

Semiconductor photodiodes with

internal gain

To ensure carrier multiplication without excess noise for a specific

thickness of multiplication region within the APD it is necessary to
reduce the ratio of the ionization coefficients for electrons and holes
k. Hence for minimum noise, the electric field at avalanche
breakdown must be as low as possible and the impact ionization
should be initiated by electrons.
To this end a reach through structure has been implemented with
the silicon APD.The silicon reach through APD (RAPD) consists of
p+pn+

layers.The

high-field

region

where

the

avalanche

multiplication takes place is relatively narrow and centered on the p

n+ junction. Thus under low reverse bias most of the voltage is
dropped across the pn+ junction.
When the reverse bias voltage is increased the depletion layer
widens across the pregion until it reaches through to the nearly

Multiplication factor
The multiplication factor M is a measure of the internal gain provided
by the APD. It is defined as:

Where I is the total output current at the operating voltage (i.e.

where carrier multiplication occurs) and Ip is the initial or primary
photocurrent (i.e. before carrier multiplication occurs).

Example 4

Part I
OPTICAL CONNECTORS
Fiber Alignment
Fiber splices
Fiber connectors
Expanded beam connectors
Fiber couplers.

FIBER JOINTS
Source- Fiber
Fiber- Fiber
Fiber- Detector
Manufacturers supply Electro-optical devices (Sources
and Detectors) with fiber optic pigtail to facilitate
direct fiber-fiber connection
IMPORTANT ASPECT IS FIBER-TO- FIBER CONNECTION
WITH LOW LOSS AND MINIMUM DISTORTION

Fiber Joints
Fibers must be joined when
You need more length than you can get
on a single roll
Connecting distribution cable to
backbone
Connecting to electronic source and
transmitter
Repairing a broken cable

Two major categories of fiber joints

FIBER SPLICES: Permanent or Semi-permanent
joints
Soldering
FIBER
CONNECTORS:
Removable joints
Plugs or Sockets

Demountable

FIBER COUPLERS: Branching devices

Splitters or Combiners
Importance in Networks

or

Crucial aspect of fiber joints concerning Optical Losses

associated with the connection:
Fiber Alignment
LOSS MECHANISMS AT JOINTS

1.

Fresnel Reflection

Optical Loss encountered at the interfaces (Even when

two fiber ends are smooth, perpendicular to fiber axes and
perfectly aligned)

A small proportion of light may be reflected back into

transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the joint.
Fresnel Reflection

Reflection Loss

Occurs due to step changes in refractive index

at
jointed interface Glass Air - Glass

Fraction of light reflected at a

single interface

where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a single

interface, n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core and n is
the refractive index of the medium between the two jointed
fibers (i.e. for air n = 1)

Loss in decibel due to FR at single interface

Can be reduced to a very low level using index

matching fluid
in the gap between jointed fibers.

2.Deviation in Geometrical & Optical

Parameters

All light from one fiber is not transmitted to another

fiber; Because of mismatch of mechanical
dimension

Three major cases :

Core mismatch

NA mismatch

Index Profile

Intrinsic Losses
Losses due to:
Fresnel Reflection
Deviation in Geometrical & Optical
parameters
Minimized using fibers manufactured
with lowest tolerance i.e.(same fiber)

Extrinsic Losses
Losses due to some imperfection in
splicing
Caused by Misalignment

Three possible types of misalignment at joint

Longitudinal misalignment

Lateral misalignment;
Angular misalignment

FIBER SPLICES
A permanent joint formed between two
fibers

TWO BROAD CATEGORIES

Fusion Splicing or Welding

Accomplished by applying localized heating
(a flame or an electric arc) at the interface
between two butted, prealigned fiber ends
causing them to soften and fuse.

Mechanical Splicing
Fibers are held in alignment by some mechanical means

Achieved by various methods;

Tube Splices
Groove Splices

Fusion Splicing of Optical Fibers

Require Fiber end surfaces t

be prepared for joint.

Heating of prepared fiber

ends to fusion point with
application of axial pressu
between two fibers.
Positioning & alignment
using microscopes
Electric Arc Fusion splicing

Prefusion Method
No need for end preparation

Smaller Fresnel Reflection loss

Typical Losses : 0.1 to 0.2 dB for MMF

Fusion Splicers

Mechanical Splicing

Uses accurately produced rigid alignment tubes into

which the prepared fiber ends are permanently bonded.

Techniques for tube splicing of optical fibers:

Snug Tube Splice

Loose Tube Splice; Square Cross section Capillary

Requirements of a good connector

The optical connectors are generally used to join
sources as well as detectors to optical fiber
temporarily.
Some of the principal requirements of a good connector
design are as follows:
1. Low losses
2. Interchangeability
3. Ease of assembly
4. Low environmental sensitivity
5. Low-cost and reliable construction
6. Ease of connection

Three Major Parts:

Fiber Termination : protects and locates the

fiber ends

Fiber end Alignment : provide optimum

optical coupling

Outer shell : maintains the connection and

fiber alignment, protects the fiber ends from
the environment and provides adequate
strength at the joint.
Losses in the range 0.2 to 0.3 dB

Butt Jointed Connectors

Alignment of two prepared fiber ends in

close proximity (butted) to each other so
that the fiber axes coincide.

Expanded-Beam Connectors

Utilize interposed optics at the joint in order

to expand the beam from the transmitting
fiber end before reducing it again to a size
compatible with the receiving fiber end.

Multiple Fiber Connectors

Utilizes V grooved Silicon chips for

mounting

Metal guiding rods and coil

springs for precise alignment

Average Losses
0.8 dB with MMFs
Reduced to 0.4 dB using index
matching fluids

Fiber ribbon connector

(b) SM Ten fiber connector.

Optical Couplers

Passive devices operate completely in the optical

domain to split and combine light streams.

They include N N couplers (with N 2), power

splitters, power taps, and star couplers.

They can be fabricated either from optical fibers

or by means of planar optical waveguides using
material such as LiNbO3, InP, silica, silicon
oxynitride, or various polymers.
52

The 2 2 Fiber Coupler

P0 is the input power, P1 is the throughout power, and P2 is the power

coupled into the second fiber.

P3 and P4 are extremely low signal levels (-50 to -70 dB below the input
level) resulting from backward reflections and scattering in the device

The evanescent
tail from one
fiber core
couples into
another closely
spaced fiber
core

Optical power
coupling

53

Performance of an Optical Coupler

3-dB coupler: P1 = P2 = 0.5 P0

Tap coupler: P2 = 0.005 P0 (- 23
dB)

54

Example Coupler Performance

55

Star Couplers

In general, an N M coupler has N inputs

and M outputs

56

N N Star Coupler
Can construct star couplers by cascading 3-dB couplers
The number of 3-dB couplers needed to construct an N
N star is

57