Chapter One

Magnetics
What is a magnet?

A magnet is any material that attracts iron

or things made of iron.
If a material is magnetic, it has the ability
to exert forces on magnets or other
magnetic materials.

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Kinds of magnets
Temporary Magnets

Permanent Magnets

Difficult to magnetize and

keep their magnetic
properties longer than
temporary magnets.
Some permanent magnets
are made with alnico-an
alloy made up of
aluminum, nickel, cobalt,
and iron.

Made from materials that are

easy to magnetize, but lose
their magnetism easily.
Soft iron is iron that has not
been mixed with any other
materials and can be made into
temporary magnets
The paper clip and nail in the
mini-lab were temporary
magnets.

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Properties of Magnets
All magnets have two
opposite magnetic poles,
called the north pole and
south pole.
If a magnet is cut in half,
each half will have its
own north and south
poles.
Poles of a magnet always
Come in pairs!
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Properties of Magnets

Whether the two magnets attract or repel

depends on which poles face each other.

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Properties of Magnets

Magnetic forces are used in

many applications because
they are relatively easy to
create and can be very
strong.
Large magnets create forces
strong enough to lift a car or
a moving train.
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Properties of Magnets
Magnets attract objects of iron, cobalt and nickel.
The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle.
Like poles of two magnets repel each other.
Opposite poles of two magnets attracts each other.
If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and if it is free to rotate, its South
Pole will move towards the North Pole of the earth and vice versa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

Magnetic lines of force start from the North Pole and end at the South Pole.
They are continuous through the body of magnet
Magnetic lines of force can pass through iron more easily than air.
Two magnetic lines of force can not intersect each other.
They tend to contract longitudinally.
They tend to expand laterally.
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The force between two magnets

The strength of the
force between magnets
depends on the distance
between them.
The magnetic force
decreases with distance
much faster than does
either gravity or the
electric force.
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The force between two magnets

Two magnets near each other often
feel a twisting force, or torque.
This is a result of having two
poles.

The combination of attractive

and repulsive forces on the same
magnet creates a torque.

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Electromagnets
An electromagnet is made up of a solenoid wrapped
around an iron core.
Electromagnets are very useful because they can be
turned on and off as needed.
The solenoid has a field only when there is electric
current in it.

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Magnetic Fields
The region where the magnetic forces act is called the magnetic
field

The direction of magnetic field lines represented by the

alignment of iron filings sprinkled on paper placed above a
bar magnet.

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10

Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Field lines point from the
north pole to the south pole of the
magnet
The north pole of a compass needle always
points in the direction of the field (from
North to South)

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11

Magnetic fields
Shape is shown with lines
drawn from the north pole of
the magnet to the south pole,
called magnetic field lines
The closer together the
magnetic field lines are the
stronger the magnetic force is

What part of the magnet has the

strongest magnetic force? How
can you tell?
AT THE POLES magnetic
field lines are closest together!
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12

Properties of Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field is found in the area around magnetic materials and current
carrying conductors, and has both a direction and a magnitude at each point.
A magnetic field can either attract or repel other magnetic objects at a distance.

A magnetic field differs in this respect from a gravitational field which is always
attractive and also in the fact that a magnetic field only affects some types of
material.

There is a close association between magnetic and electric fields, the study of
which is known as electromagnetism.

Magnets have both North and South poles, which always occur in
pairs.
The North pole is defined as the pole of amagnetic compass
which points towards the Earth's Magnetic North.

A magnetic field may be represented by lines ofmagnetic flux

which
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13
.

.
Magnetic field lines are defined to have the direction that a small compass
points when placed at a location.
If small compasses are used to map the magnetic field around a bar
magnet, they will point in the directions shown: away from the north
pole of the magnet, toward the south pole of the magnet (recall that
Earth's north magnetic pole is really a south pole in terms of definitions
of poles on a bar magnet. )
Connecting the arrows gives continuous magnetic field lines.
The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness (or density) of
the lines.
If the interior of the magnet could be probed, the field lines would be
found to form continuous closed loops.
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14

The properties of magnetic field lines

The direction of the magnetic field is tangent to the field line at any point in
space. A small compass will point in the direction of the field line.
The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness of the lines.
It is exactly proportional to the number of lines per unit area perpendicular
to the lines (called the areal density).
Magnetic field lines can never cross, meaning that the field is unique at
any point in space.
Magnetic field lines are continuous, forming closed loops without
beginning or end.
They go from the north pole to the south pole.
The last property is related to the fact that the north and south poles
cannot be separated.
It is a distinct difference from electric field lines, which begin and end on
the positive and negative charges.
If magnetic monopoles existed, then magnetic field lines would begin
and end on them.
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15

.
The magnetic field of a circular current loop is similar to that
of a bar magnet.
A long and straight wire creates a field with magnetic field
lines forming circular loops.
When the wire is in the plane of the paper, the field is
perpendicular to the paper.
Note that the symbols used for the field pointing inward (like
the tail of an arrow) and the field pointing outward (like the
tip of an arrow).
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16

Earths Magnetic Field

The Earths geographic north pole corresponds to a magnetic
south pole
The Earths geographic south pole corresponds to a magnetic
north pole
Strictly speaking, a north pole should be a north-seeking pole
and a south pole a south-seeking pole

The Earths magnetic field resembles that achieved by

burying a huge bar magnet deep in the Earths interior

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Magnetic Material

All the materials in this universe may be classified either

magnetic or
non-magnetic
Magnetic materials are those which are affected by magnetic field and
non magnetic materials are those which are not affected or slightly affected by
magnetic field.
Maximum types of materials fall under category of non magnetic material.
Non-magnetic material can further be classified as
diamagnetic and
paramagnetic materials
Some of the non magnetic materials exhibit very slight magnetic effect but it is
extremely difficult to detect.
Practically, all these materials are referred as totally non-magnetic.
On the other hand, all the materials which exhibit magnetic effect strongly are
referred as magnetic materials or ferromagnetic materials.
The materials based on iron, cobalt and ferrites are normally ferromagnetic materials.
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Magnetic Materials
Magnetic Materials may be classified as
diamagnetic,
paramagnetic, or
ferromagnetic on the basis of their susceptibilities.
Diamagnetic materials

such as bismuth, when placed in an external magnetic field,

partly expel the external field from within themselves and, if
shaped like a rod, line up at right angles to a non-uniform
magnetic field.

are characterized by constant, small negative susceptibilities,

only slightly affected by changes in temperature.
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19

Paramagnetic materials,

such as platinum, increase a magnetic field in which they are placed

because their atoms have small magnetic dipole moments that
partly line up with the external field.

have constant, small positive susceptibilities, less than 1/1,000 at

room temperature, which means that the enhancement of the
magnetic field caused by the alignment of magnetic dipoles is
relatively small compared with the applied field.

is inversely proportional to the value of the absolute temperature.

Temperature increases cause greater thermal vibration of atoms,

which interferes with alignment of magnetic dipoles.
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20

Ferromagnetic materials
such as iron and cobalt, do.not have constant
susceptibilities; the magnetization is not usually
proportional to the applied field strength.
Measured ferromagnetic susceptibilities have relatively
large positive values, sometimes in excess of 1,000.
Thus, within ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetization may be more than 1,000 times larger
than the external magnetizing field,
because such materials are composed of highly
magnetized clusters (collections) of atomic magnets
(ferromagnetic domains) that are more easily lined up
by the external field.
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21

Magnetic Hysteresis
Hysteresis refers to a
situation where the
magnetic flux lags the
increases or decreases in
magnetizing force.
Hysteresis Loop
BR is due to retentivity,
which is the flux density
remaining after the
magnetizing force is reduced
to zero.
Note that H = 0 but B > 0.
HC is the coercive force
(needed to make B = 0)
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22

M
Ms

Residual Mr
Magnetiza
tion

-Hs

If we start with no Magnetized specimen (M= 0) with

the increasing values of magnetizing field H.
The Magnetization of the specimen increases from
zero to higher values and attains its maximum value at a
point P, at this point the Magnetization referred as
Saturation Magnetization

Hc o
Coercivit
y

Saturation
Magnetization
P

-Ms

Ferro Magnetic
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Material

Hs

When we increase Magnetic field H there is

no further increment in Magnetic moment.
When we decrease Magnetic field H to Zero,
the Magnetization M attains point Q.
At this point Magnetization referred as
residual Magnetization Mr.

Further if we increase the Magnetic field from

zero to negative values, the Magnetization of
material becomes zero at a point R,
at that point the Magnetic field Hc is referred as
Coercivity of the specimen.
23

 If we increase Magnetic field H in reverse direction Magnetization of material

reaches its peak value at a points S.
On reversing the polarities of Magnetic field and increasing its strength the
Magnetization slowly decreases first to residual value then to zero and
finally increases to saturation state and touches the original saturation
curve.
The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of operation.

Hysteresis loss
.When a magnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization,
energy is dissipated in the material in the form of heat. This is known
as the hysteresis loss.
Transformers and most electric motors operate on alternating current.
In such devices the flux in the iron changes continuously both in value and
direction.

The magnetic domains are therefore oriented first in one direction,

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24
then the other, at a rate that depends upon the frequency.

Magnetic Circuits
Practically all transformers and electric machinery use
magnetic material for shaping and directing the
magnetic fields which act as the medium for
transferring and converting energy.
Thus it is important to analyze and describe magnetic
field quantities for understanding these devices.
Magnetic materials play a big role in determining the
properties of a piece of electromagnetic equipment or
the electric machine and affect its size and efficiency.
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25

Cont.
In electrical machines, ferromagnetic materials
may form the magnetic circuits only (as in
transformers) or by ferromagnetic materials in
conjunction with an air medium (as in rotating
machines).
In most electrical machines, except permanent
magnet machines, the magnetic field (or flux)
is produced by passing an electrical current
through coils wound on ferromagnetic
materials.
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26

Magnetic Field Intensity, H And Flux

Density, B
When a conductor carries current a magnetic field is
produced around it, as shown in Fig.1.1
The direction of flux lines or magnetic field intensity H
(A/m) can be determined by what is known as the thumb rule.

Thumb rule
If the conductor is held with the right hand with the thumb
indicating the direction of current in the conductor then,
the fingertips will indicate the direction of magnetic field
intensity .
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27

Fig.1.1 Field around an infinitely long, straight conductor carrying a current.

Amperes law:
The magnetic field intensity H around a closed contour C is equal to the total current
passing through any surface S linking that contour which is known as Amperes law as
shown in equation (1.1)

where
H is the magnetic field intensity at a point on the contour and
dl is the incremental length at that point.
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28

Cont...
Suppose that the field strength at point C distance r
meters from the center of the conductor is H.
Then it means that if a unit N-pole is placed at C, it
will experience a force of H Newton.
The direction of this force would be tangential to the
circular line of force passing through C.
If the unit N-pole is moved once round the conductor
against this force, then work done, this work can be
obtained from the following relation:

Work =Force * distance =H

* 2* r
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(1.2)
29

Cont...
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the
magnetic flux density B is a property of the material in which the
field exists which is known as the permeability of the material;
Thus,

B =H

(1.3)

where is the permeability.

In SI units B is in webers per square meter, known as tesla (T), and
In SI units of the permeability of free space, Vacuum or nonmagnetic
materials is 0=4*107 H/m .
The permeability of ferromagnetic material can be expressed in terms
of its value relative to that of free space, or = 0 * r .
Where r is known as relative permeability of the material.
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30

 Typical values of r range from 2000 to 80,000 for

ferromagnetic materials used in transformers and rotating
machines.
For the present we assume that r is a known constant for
specific material,
although it actually varies appreciably with the magnitude of
the magnetic flux density.

Fig.1.2 Toroid magnetic circuit.

shows a simple magnetic circuit having a ring-shaped magnetic
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core, called toroid, and a coil that extends around it.

31

 When current i flows through the coil of N turns, magnetic flux is mostly
confined in the core material.
The flux outside the toroid, called leakage flux, is so small that for all
practical purposes it can be neglected.
Consider a path at main radius r.
The magnetic intensity on this path is H and, from Ampere's circuit law,
the following relation can be obtained:
.

Where as shown in Fig.1.2 ID and OD are inner and outer diameter of

the core of the triode.
The quantity Ni is called the magneto motive force (mmf), and its unit is
Ampere-turn (At).
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32

.
If we assume that all the fluxes are confined in the toroid, that is,
there is no magnetic leakage, the flux crossing the cross section of
the toroid is:

Where B is the average flux density in the core and A is the area of
cross section of the toroid.
The average flux density may correspond to the path at the mean
radius of the toroid.
If H is the magnetic intensity for this path, then from Eqs. (1.7) and
(1.9),
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33

 is called the reluctance of the magnetic. Equation (1.10)

suggests that the driving force in the magnetic circuit of Fig.1.2
is the magneto motive force mmf, which produces a flux
against a magnetic reluctance .

The magnetic circuit of the toroid can therefore be represented

by a magnetic equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.1.3.

Also note that Equation (1.10) has the form of Ohm's law for an
electric circuit (i = E/R).
The analogous electrical circuit is shown in Fig.1.3.

A magnetic circuit is often looked upon as analogous to an

electric circuit.
The analogy is illustrated in Table 1.1.
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34

The analogy is illustrated in Table 1.1.

.

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35

Magnetization Curve
A typical ferromagnetic material is
silicon steel, which is widely used
for the cores of transformers and
rotating machines.
When such a material is magnetized
by slowly increasing the applied
magnetizing force H, the resulting
flux density B follows a curve of the
form shown in Fig.1.4.
This is known as the magnetization
curve for the material.
The part of the magnetization curve
where the slope begins to change
rapidly is termed the knee.
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36

Magnetization Circuits with Air-gap

lc

= length of the core

W =width
of the
core
lg

l
c c
c Ac

Ni H c lc H g l g
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lg

g Ag

= length

of the gap

Ni

c g

Ac Ag wd ( Neglecting fringing )
37

Energy conversion devices which incorporate a

moving element must have air gaps in their
magnetic circuits.

The magnetic field lines bulge

outward somewhat as they cross
the air gap. This phenomena
known as fringing of magnetic
field.

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38

Fringing
lc

i
N

With large air-gaps, flux tends to leak outside the air gap. This is
called fringing which increases the effective flux area. One way to
approximate this increase is:

wn w l g ; d n d l g ; Agn wn d n
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39

 The magnetic field lines bulge outward somewhat as they

cross the air gap. This phenomena known as fringing of
magnetic field.
..

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Various empirical methods

have been developed to
account for this effect.
A correction for such
fringing fields in short air
gaps can be made by adding
the gap length to each of the
two dimensions making up
its cross-sectional area.
If fringing is neglected,
40

Series and parallel magnetic circuit

.

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41

Examples
Example 1.1 In the magnetic system
of Fig.1.7 two sides are thicker than
the other two sides. The depth of the
core is 10 cm, the relative
permeability of the core, r = 2000,
the number of turns N
500,
.and the current flowing through
the coil is i = 1 A.
A. Determine the flux in the core.
B. Determine the flux densities in the
parts of the core.
C. Find the current i in the coil to
produce a flux (=0.012Wb).
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42

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43

A circular ring of magnetic material has a mean length of

1.0m and a cross-sectional area of 0.001 m2. A saw cut of 5
mm width is made in the ring.
Calculate the magnetizing current required to produce a flux
of 1.0mWb in the air-gap if the ring is wound uniformly with
a coil of 200 turns.
Take relative permeability of the ring material =500 and
neglect leakage and fringing.

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44

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45

Example 1.3

The magnetic circuit of Fig. 1.10 provides flux in the two air gaps. The coils (N1=
700, N2 = 200) are connected in series and carry a current of 0.5 ampere.
Neglect leakage flux, reluctance of the iron (i.e., infinite permeability), and fringing
at the air gaps. Determine the flux and flux density in the air gaps

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46

Solution: mmfs of the two coils oppose each other Then,

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47

Electromagnetic
Induction

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field,

an EMF is generated;
when it caries current in a magnetic field, a
force is produced.
Both of these effects may be deduced from one
of the most fundamental principles of
electromagnetism, and they provide the basis
for a number of devices in which conductors
move freely in a magnetic field.
.

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48

It has already been mentioned that most electrical

machines employ a different form of construction.
Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known
as Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, it
revealed a fundamental relationship between the voltage
and flux in a circuit.

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49

Faraday's Laws
First Law states: Whenever the magnetic flux
linked with a circuit changes,
an EMF is always induced in it.
Second Law states: Whenever a conductor cuts
The magnitude of the
magnetic flux, an EMF is
induced EMF is equal to
induced in that conductor.

the rate of change of fluxExplanation.

Suppose a coil has N turns and flux throughlinkages
it changes from an initial value of
1 webers to the final value of 2 , webers in time t seconds.
Then remembering that by flux-linkages is meant the product of number of
turns by the flux linked with the coil, we have the following relation:
Initial flux linkages = N1 . And final flux linkages = N2 Then the induced EMF
is
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50

Cont.
Usually a minus sign is given to the right-hand side
expression to signify the fact that the induced EMF sets up
current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by
it opposes the very cause producing it.

Example
The field coils of a 6-pole DC generator each having 500
turns, are connected in series. When the field is excited, there
is magnetic flax of 0.02 Wb/pole. If the field circuit is opened
in 0.02 second and the residual magnetism is 0.002 Wb/pole,
calculate the average voltage that is induced across the field
terminals. In which direction is this voltage directed relative to
the direction of the current.
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51

Solution
Total number of turns, N=6*500=3000 turns
Total initial flux =6 *0.02=0.12 Wb;
Total residual flux= 6 * 0.002=0.012 Wb,

Exercise
1. 1.8 A coil of resistance 100 is placed in a magnetic
field of 1 mWb. The coil has 100 turns and a galvanometer
of 400 resistance is connected in series with it: Find the
average EMF and the current if the coil is moved in 1/10th
second from the given field to a field of 0.2 mWb.
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52

Exercise

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53

Direction Of Induced EMF And Current

There exists a definite relation between
the direction of the induced current,
the direction of the flux and
the direction of motion of the conductor.

The direction of the induced current may be found easily

by applying either
Fleming's Right-hand Rule or
Lenz's Law.
Fleming's rule is used where induced EMF is due to,
flux cutting (i.e. dynamically induced. EMF) and
Lenz's when it is due to change by flux linkages (i.e.
statically induced Emf).
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54

Cont.

Fleming's Right-Hand Rule

Hold out your right hand with forefinger, second
figure, and thumb at right angles to one another. If the
forefinger represents the direction of the field, and the
thumb represents the direction of the motion then, the
second finger represents the direction of the induced
emf in the coil.

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55

Lenz Law
states in effect, that electromagnetically induced current
always flows in such a direction that the action of the
magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause,
which produces it.
This statement will be clarified with reference to Fig.below
It is found that when N-pole of the bar magnet approaches the coil, the induced
current setup by the induced EMF flaws in the anti-clockwise direction in the
coil as seen from the magnet side.
The result is that the face of the coil becomes a N-pole and so tends to retard the
onward approach of the N pole' of the magnet (like poles repel each other).
The mechanical energy spent in overcoming this repulsive force is converted
into electrical energy, which appears in the coil.

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Electromagnetic Force
The basic principle of motor action is the so called electromagnetic force or Lorentz
force production.
Lorentz force
It states that "when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is
subject to a force which we call Lorentz force ".
The magnitude of the force depends upon the orientation of the conductor with respect to
the direction of the field.
The force is greatest when the conductor is perpendicular to the field and
zero when it is parallel to it.
Between these two extremes, the force has intermediate values.
The maximum force acting on a straight conductor is given by

F =Bli
Where F : Is the force acting on the conductor (N),

B : Is the flux density of the field (T), and,

l : Is the length of the conductor facing the magnetic field(m).

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: the current in the conductor (A).

57

The direction of the magnetic force can be determined by using Felming left hand rule

Felmeng left hand rule

Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right angles to
one another. If the forefinger represents the direction of the field, and the second
finger that of the current, then thumb gives the direction of the motion or force.

The direction of the force can also be determined by using the right-hand screw
rule, illustrated in Fig.2.2(b).
Turn the current vector i toward the flux vector B.
If a screw is turned in the same way, the direction in which the screw will move
represents the direction of the force f.
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58

Coefficient of Self-Induction (L)

It may be defined in any one of the three ways given below
First Method for L The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber
turns per ampere in the coil.
By weber-turns is meant the product of flux in webers and the number of turns with
which the flux is linked. In other words, it is the flux-linkages of the coil.
Consider a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of 1 ampere.
If the flux produced is ( webers, then weber-turns are N *). Hence, weber-turns
per ampere are N/ I .
Then by definition, L =N/ I Henry
(1.14)
Where
N= number of turns
=flux linkage
I=current

Hence, a coil is said to have a self-inductance of one Henry if a current of 1 ampere

when flowing through it produces flux linkages of l Wb turn in it.
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Example
The field winding of a DC electromagnet is wound' with 960
turns and has resistance of 50. When the exciting voltage is 230
V, the magnetic flux linking the coil is 0.005 Wb. Calculate the
self-inductance of the coil and the energy stored in the magnetic
field.

Solution:

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Given
N= 960 turns
R= 50
V=230V
= 0.005 Wb

Required
L=?
E=?

60

In second method for L as we know before from

equation

Example
An air-cored solenoid 1 cm in diameter and 1 meter
long has an inductance of 0.1 mH. Find the number of
effective turns on the coil.
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 Third method for L,

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62

Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance may be defined as
The ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an EMF in a
nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil
changes.
This action being reciprocal, the second coil can also induce
an EMF in the first when current in the second coil changes.
This ability of reciprocal induction is measured in terms of
the coefficient of mutual induction M.
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63