Taksonomi Tumbuhan

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Introduction
Taxonomy

is the science of
classifying and identifying plants.
Scientific names are necessary
because the same common name is
used for different plants in different
areas of the world.
Latin is the language used for
scientific classification.

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Karl von Linne (1707-1778)

Swedish botanist
Developed binomial
classification scheme for
plants.
Uses two Latin words to
indicate the genus and the
species.
Changed his name to the
Latin name of Carolus
Linnaeus.

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Scientific Names
The

first word is the genus and the

second word is the species.
If there are additional words, they
indicate the variety or cultivar.

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Scientific Classification
Kingdom
Phylum/Division
Class
Order
Suborder
Family
Genus
Species
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Names and Terms

Division:
The major category is called a division and
is equivalent to Phylum in the animal
kingdom
Division names endings indicate plants (phyta) and fungi (-mycota)
Class Monocotyledoneae &
Dicotyledoneae
Order (-ales)
Family (-aceae)
Genus & Species

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Family

Biologists classify living organisms by their

relatedness. The basic categories are:
Kingdom
Division (Phylum for animals)
Class
Order
Increasing degree
Family
of specificity
Genus
towards a single,
Species
definable, named
species.

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An example of phylogentic classification

(Joran Viers-Basic Botany)

Kingdom=Plantae; Organisms that usually have rigid cell

walls and usually possess chlorophyll.
Subkingdom=Embryophyta; Plants forming embryos.
Phylum=Tracheophyta; Vascular plants.
Subphylum=Pterophytina; Generally large, conspicuous
leaves, complex vascular system.
Class=Angiospermae; Flowering plants, seed enclosed in
ovary.
Subclass=Dicotyledoneae; Embryo with two seed leaves.
Order=Sapindales; Soapberry order consisting of a
number of trees and shrubs.
Family=Aceraceae; Maple family.
Genus=Acer; Maples and box elder.
Species=Acer rubrum; Red maple.

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Divisions
The

four most important divisions of

the plant kingdom are.
Thallophyta Algae dan Fungi
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Spermatophyta

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Spermatophyta
Includes

flowering or seed-bearing

plants.
The two subdivisions are.
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms

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 salah satu cabang ilmu botani yang

mempelajari pengelompokan tumbuhan.
Kata Taksonomi berasal dari Bahasa
Yunani yaitu taxis yang berarti susunan
dan penataan dan nomos yang berarti
hukum atau aturan.

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Lawrence (1969) mendefinisikannya

sebagai studi yang meliputi identifikasi,
tatanama (nomenclature) dan
klasifikasi dari suatu obyek
Ilmu taksonomi modern : mencakup
studi tentang hubungan kekerabatan
antar spesies (filogenetik) maupun
proses-proses evolusi yang terkait
(misalnya hibridisasi, variasi dalam
populasi dan asal muasal suatu jenis).
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Ada 4 komponen dasar dalam Taksonomi :

1. Klasifikasi: penyusunan kelompok-kelompok
tumbuhan ke dalam suatu tingkatan taksonomi
berdasarkan sifat-sifat tertentu.
2. Identifikasi, yaitu determinasi suatu nama untuk suatu
spesies.
3. Deskripsi, adalah penjabaran karakter-karakter atau ciriciri suatu spesies. Biasanya digunakan untuk
membedakan antara suatu spesies dengan spesies
lainnya
4. Tatanama (Nomenclature), suatu sistem aturan yang
jelas dan bersifat universal yang digunakan oleh semua
ahli botani di dunia untuk menamakan tumbuhan yang
tertuang dalam Kode Internasional untuk Tatanama
Tumbuhan (International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature, ICBN).
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 Sistem klasifikasi dalam taksonomi tumbuhan:

sistem klasifikasi alam atau sistem klasifikasi filogenetik dan
sistem klasifikasi buatan (berdasarkan habitat)
Sistem klasifikasi yang tinjauannya didasarkan modifikasi
dari sistem yang telah ada dengan penambahan data yang
baru, disebut sistem kontemporer.

*Identifikasi tumbuhan adalah menentukan namanya yang

benar dan tempatnya yang tepat dalam sistem klasifikasi

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Classification - 5 kingdoms
(Whittaker, 1969)
Prokaryotae or Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animaliae
Classification - 3 kingdoms or domains (Woese, 1978)
Eubacteria - true bacteria
Archaebacteria - ancient bacteria
Eukaryotes - protists, fungi, plants, animals
Viruses????

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Prokaryotes come in a variety of

shapes
Cocci spherical
come in clusters
(staphylococci) or
chains
( streptococci)
Bacilli rod shaped
Curved or spiral
shaped (syphillus,
a spirochete is an
example)

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Archaea thrive in extreme

environments
Can survive in very
salty places. Salt
water 3%, thrive at
15-20%
Live in water above
100 degrees C
Live in acid pools
Live in anaerobic
environments

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Structural adaptations

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Bacteria and archaea have

flagella to move about
Pili help stick to surfaces
Bacteria can form an
endospore to survive harsh
conditions (anthrax and
botulism)
Filaments on
actinomycetes allow
organism to bridge dry
gaps between soil particles

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Bacteria
Bacteria

have been on the

Earth for millions of years.
It wasn't until the late 1600s
that scientists discovered
bacteria. In fact, bacteria
were discovered by accident.
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 Anton

van Leeuwenhoek
accidentally noticed them
while looking at scrapings
from his teeth through a
very simple microscope. He
did not know what they
were, but he was essentially
the first person to see
bacteria.

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Bacteria are very small smaller

than most animal cells
They can be rod shaped,
spherical
or spiral

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These bacteria are all around us in

the environment

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Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology - 2nd ed

Vol. 1 Archae & Deeply Branching &
Phototrophic Bacteria
Vol. 2 Proteobacteria
Vol. 3 The Low G+C Gram-positive Bacteria
Vol. 4 The High G+C Gram-positive Bacteria
Vol. 5 The Planctomycetes, Spirochaetes,
Fibrobacteria Bacteroidetes & Fusobacteria

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Archae - archaebacteria
Diverse morphologically
rods, cocci, spirilli, pleomorphic
Gram- positive or Gram-negative
Diverse metabolically
aerobes, facultative anaerobes, strict anaerobes
inorganic to organic electron sources
psychrophiles, mesophiles, thermophiles
ether-linked lipids
some produce methane
most thermophiles
Cell wall
Molecular - some characteristics like bacteria
some characteristics like eukaryotes
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Prokaryotic cell
Shapes: rod (bacillus, bacilli)
sphere (coccus, cocci)
spiral (spirillum, spirilli)
pleomorphic
Cell arrangement: single cell
pairs (diplococcus)
chains
clusters

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Prokaryotic cell structure

Capsule - external carbohydrate (protection, adhesion)

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Prokaryotic cell structure Capsule

Flagellum -(motility; antigenic)
GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA:
1. A very thick cell wall of peptidoglycan
2. If a flagellum is present it contain two rings for support
3. Teichoic acid are present
4. Lipopolysaccharide is absent
5. Do not sensitive to penicillin
6. Digested by lysozyme
7. protein content 0 %
8. lipid and lipoprotein content 0-3 %
9. Gram positive bacteria stain purple.
GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA:
1. A very thin layer of peptidoglycan
2. Teichoic acid are absent
3. Lipopolysaccharide is present (outside the polysacchride)
4. Weakly sensitive to penicillin
5. Weakly Digested by lysozyme
6. protein content 9%
7. lipid and lipoprotein content 58%
8. Gram negative bacteria stain pink.
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9. If a flagellum is present, it contain four supporting rings.

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Prokaryotic cell structure

Capsule
Flagellum
Fimbria (fimbriae) &: Pilus (pili) - tubules (attachment;
DNA transfer)
Cell wall - mucopeptide (rigidity; protection)
Gram-positive & Gram-negative
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
Cell membrane - (permeability, transport)
osmosis & osmotic pressure
Cytoplasm
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Prokaryotic cell structure

Capsule
Flagellum
Fimbria (fimbriae) & Pilus (pili)
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Endospore - hardy, resistant structure (survival)

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Prokaryotic Cells

Simplest organisms
Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane and
encased in a rigid cell wall composed of
peptidoglycan.
no distinct interior compartments
gram-positive thick single layer wall that
retains a violet dye from Gram stain procedure
gram-negative multilayered wall does not
retain dye
Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics
depends on cell wall structure.

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SPIROCHETES
helical rods with axial filament
motile
habitat: mud to intestinal tract
metabolism: chemoheterotrophs
aerobic to anaerobic
saprophytes to obligate parasites
Treponema pallidum - syphillis
T. partenue - yaws
Borellia burgdorferi - Lyme disease
Leptospira - leptospirosis
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HELICAL or VIBROID Gram-negative Bacteria

helical to comma shaped rods

Campylobacter fetus - spontaneous abortion

C. jejuni - food-borne intestinal disease
Helicobacter pylori - ulcers

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ANAEROBIC GRAM-NEGATIVE STRAIGHT,

CURVED AND HELICAL RODS

Bacteroides - peritonitis

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GRAM-NEGATIVE AEROBIC RODS AND COCCI

Pseudomonadaceae
Azotobacteriaceae
Rhizobiaceae
Legionellaceae
Neisseriaceae
Unknown affiliation: Brucella, Bordatella, Francisella

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FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC GRAM-NEGATIVE

RODS
Enterobacteriaceae

Escherichia Serratia
Salmonella Proteus
Shigella
Yersinia
Klebsiella

Vibrionaceae

Vibrio

Pasteurellaceae

Pasteurella
Hemophilus
Uncertain affiliation Gardnerella
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RICKETTSIALES AND CHLAMYDIALES

Gram-negative
Obligate intracellular parasites
Rickettsia

insect vector

Chlamydia

sexually transmitted

MYCOPLASMA

no rigid wall - soft skin

triple layered membrane
pleomorphic

Mycoplasma
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GRAM-POSITIVE COCCI
Micrococcaceae
Aerobic to facultatively anaerobic
Single cell to irregular clusters
Staphylococcus
Streptococcaceae
Anaerobic
Pairs to chains
Lactic acid bacteria
Streptococcus

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ENDOSPORE -FORMING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS &

COCCI
Large rod shaped cells
Grow in chains
Produce hardy, resistant endospore
Bacillus - aerobic
Clostridium - anaerobic

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REGULAR NON-SPORING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS

Lactobacillus
Listeria

IRREGULAR NON-SPORING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS

cells pleomorphic: club-shaped, spindle-shaped,
dumbells
Corynebacterium
Actinomyces

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MYCOBACTERIA
Rod-shaped cells
Aerobic
Non-motile
Waxy coat; dont stain readily
Acid-fast
Mycobacterium
M. tuberculosis
M. leprae

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Some bacteria cause disease

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Exotoxins poisons
secreted by bacteria
(staphylococcus aureaus
can cause toxic shock
syndrome, also toxic
strains of e. coli)
Endotoxins poisonous
glycolipid components of
the cell wall of some
bacteria. (salmonella
food poisoning or typhoid
fever
Sanitation, antibiotics and
education have stopped
much fatality (e.g. Lyme
disease)

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Most bacteria is

not harmful

In fact, many are extremely

beneficial.
They..
flavor cheese and make yogurt
help us digest food
Treat sewage
Decompose dead plants and animals
Help create healthy soil for growing crops
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Prokaryotes help recycle chemicals

and clean up the environment

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Cyanobacteria can convert

nitrogen gas to nitrogen
compounds plants can use
Live on the roots of
legumes and contribute
nitrogen to the soil
Breakdown of organic
wastes and dead organisms
to chemicals other
organisms can use
Decompose organic matter
in sewage sludge to
material that can be used
as landfill or fertilizer
oil-eating bacteria
Accumulate metals from
mine waters
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Rhizobium are symbiotic bacteria in root nodules

Rhizobium fix
nitrogen ( N2)
into ammonium
Rhizobium and
plants are
species specific
Legumes are crops
with
Root nodules
Clover, peas, alfalfa

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Figure 37.10x Nodules

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Viruses

Viruses are the tiniest of the

microorganisms

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Viruses

cannot reproduce without taking over

a host cell
There is still discussion as to whether
they are really living things
Some are helpful to us, others cause
disease

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Prokaryotic Cells

Some use flagellum for locomotion

threadlike structures protruding from
cell surface
Bacterial cell wall
Rotary
motor

Flagellin

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Sheath

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Eukaryotic cell structure

Cell membrane or Plasma membrane

Cytoplasm
Organelles - organized membranous
components:
Endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth, rough)
Golgi complex
Lysosomes (not in plant cells)
Mitochondrion (mitochondria)
Plastids (chloroplast)
Nucleus:
Chromosomes
Nucleolus

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Eukaryotic Cells
Characterized

by
compartmentalization by an
endomembrane system, and the
presence of membrane-bound
organelles.
Central vacuole plants, storage
Vesicles (smaller)
Chromosomes - DNA and protein
Cytoskeleton (internal protein scaffolding)
Cell walls plants and fungi
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All life on earth depends on plants. Without

plants ecosystems would soon grind to a halt.
Animals (and fungi) are parasitic on plants.

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Basics
Plants (like animals and fungi) are eukaryotes. Plants are
primitively photosynthetic, relying on organelles called
chloroplasts to capture light energy. (A few plants have lost this
ability and are parasitic on other plants). Most have highly
structured bodies, with green material growing upwards and roots
growing down. Their cell walls are reinforced with tough polymers,
notably cellulose and lignin.
All are capable of sexual reproduction, and their classification is
heavily based on studies of their reproductive organs. All exhibit a
phenomenon called alternation of generations, which you may well
be unaware of and which we will look at closely later in the lecture.

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Taxonomy - definitions
Plants are widely taken to be the green things that make flowers

Kingdom Plantae algae, mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants

In fact the boundaries are rather unclear, especially at the single-celled
level. Modern taxonomies do no try to shoehorn unicellular eukaryotes
into kingdoms alongside multicellular forms but prefer to handle them as
a distinct group (with 27 phyla at the last count). Within plants, the term
alga is not a monophyletic group, with red alga very different to brown
and green classes.

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Taksonomi Tumbuhan Rendah (Cryptogamae)

(Tumbuhan yang berkembang biak dengan Spora)
Tahun 1880 diperkenalkan suatu sistem yang membagi
Cryptogamae menjadi Thallophyta, Bryophyta (berbagai
jenis Lumut), Pteridophyta (Tumbuhan Paku).
Ciri :
- Sel telah berinti, tetapi belum berdeferensiasi (belum punya
berkas pengangkut)
- Sporangia dan gametangianya belum diselubungi oleh
dinding sel.
Thallophyta (Tumbuhan Thallus): terdiri dari dua anak kelas
Algae dan Fungi dibedakan dari Bryophyta dan
Pteridophyta berdasarkan pada struktur alat penghasil spora
dan gamet serta perkembangan zigotnya.
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Algae
An Overview

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Algae
Algae

are a type of protist that

usually live in water and can
produce their own food.

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Some algae can be large, others

are microscopic

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Characteristics
Range in size from microscopic to single
celled organisms to large seaweed
Autotrophic
Form the reproductive structures
gametangia or gamete chambers
Aquatic and have flagella at some point in
life
Often contain pyrenoids, organelles that
synthesis and store starch

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STRUCTURE
Thallus

(haploid)
Four types of algae
Unicellular
Colonial
Filamentous
multicellular
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IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF ALGAE

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CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE

SEVEN PHYLUM/DIVISION BASED ON:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

COLOR
TYPE OF CHLOROPHYLL
FOOD-STORAGE SUBSTANCE
CELL WALL COMPOSITION

PHYLUM/DIVISION:
CYANOPHYTA MONERA
CHRYSOPHYTA PROTISTA Unicellular Eukaryote
PYRROPHYTA PROTISTA Unicellular Eukaryote
EUGLENOPHYTA
CHLOROPHYTA
PHAEOPHYTA
RHODOPHYTA
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Algae can be
Red
Brown
Yellow
Or

Green

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Algae are important to

oceans
ecosystem
the
They provide food for
Fish
Whales
sea animals

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Protozoans

Protazoans are
microsopic organisms
that usually live in water

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Movement

Protozoans move
through their
environment in different
ways

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Cilia

Cilia are hair like

structures that wave
back an forth moving
the protozoan back and
forth
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A 3-d
Image of
cilia

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Flagela

A tail like structure that

propels and can capture
prey

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Psudopods
Little

feet that move

and pull the creature as it
moves

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Microorganisms
Require food, air and a way to
dispose of waste
Are found everywhere

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REPRODUCTION
MOST REPRODUCE BOTH
SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
Most sexual reproduction is
triggered by environmental
stress
Asexual Reproduction
Mitosis

Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis
Zoospores
Plus

and minus gametes

Zygospore
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Reproduction in Multicellular Algae

Oedogonium reproduction
Antheridium-release
flagellated sperm that swim
to the oogonium
Oogonium-houses the
zygote which is a diploid
spore

oogonium

The spore undergoes meiosis

and produces 4 haploid
zoospores. One of the four
cells becomes a rootlike
holdfast the others divide and
become a new filament.

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holdfast

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Spirogyra reproduce sexually by

conjugation

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Ulva Reproduces by Alternation of

Generations

Two distinct
multicellular
phases- one is
haploid and the
other is diploid
Gametophyte is
haploid
Sporophyte is
diploid

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Algae mempunyai bermacam-macam bentuk

tubuh:
Bentuk uniseluler: bentuk uniseluler yang
berflagela dan yang tidak berflagela.
Bentuk multiseluler
Reproduksi
Vegetatif: fragmentasi, pembelahan sel,
pembentukan hormogonia.
Aseksual: pembentukan mitospora, zoospora,
aplanospora, hipnospora, stadium pamela.
Seksual: isogami, heterogami yang terdiri dari
anisogami dan oogami, aplanogami, autogami.
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Protists Unicellular eukaryotes

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More complicated than

any prokaryotes
Membrane-enclosed
nucleus containing
multiple chromosomes
Organelles
characteristic of
eukaryotes
Eukaryotic flagella and
cilia
Classified into 5
kingdoms or more
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Protozoa Protists that ingest their

food

Giardia flagellate that

lives in the human
intestine and can cause
cramps and diarrhea
Trypanosoma live in the
blood stream of vertebrate
animals cause African
sleeping sickness
Amoebas large group use
pseudopodia to ingest food
Plasmodium feeds on red
blood cells and causes
malaria

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Algae photosynthetic protists

Dinoflagellate blooms can cause

red tide
Diatoms are unicellular and
very abundant in freshwater
and marine environments.
Important food source for
marine animals
Green algae cells resemble
biflagellated gametes of many
multicellular algae and some
plants, have cellulose cell walls,
use starch to store food and
have chloroplasts
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Divisio :Chrysophyta
(Termasuk Protista)
Ciri-ciri :
- Bersifat uniselular, dinding sel terdiri atas pektin yang
lunak
- Selnya berinti, kromatofora mengandung klorofil a,
karotin, santofil dan suatu karotenoid yang menyerupai
fikosantin.
- Sebagian besar bersifat autotrof, kecuali yang tidak
berwarna : heterotrof.
- Tempat hidup : air laut dan air tawar (sering melekat
pada tumbuhan air).
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Phylum Euglenophyta
1000 species of
Euglenoids
Have both plantlike
and animal-like
characteristics
Fresh water

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Phylum Chlorophyta
Green

algae
7000 diverse species
Biologist reason that green algae
give rise to land plants.
Both green algae and land plants
have chlorophyll a and B as well as
carotenoids and store food as starch
Both have walls made of cellulose
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Divisio: Chlorophyta
Ganggang Hijau

Ciri-ciri
1. Pigmen, khlorofil a dan b, serta karoten. Khlorofil terdapat dalam
jumlah yang banyak sehingga ganggang ini berwarna hijau
2. Hasil fotosintesis berupa amilum dan tersimpan dalam khloroplas.
3. Khloroplas berjumlah satu atau lebih; berbentuk mangkuk, bintang,
lensa, bulat, pita, spiral
4. Sel mempunyai 2 atau 4 flagela sama panjang.
5. Dinding sel mengandung selulose.
6. Perkembangbiakan: aseksual dengan Zoospora dan seksual
dengan anisogami
Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar ( 90%) merupakan algae air tawar terdapat pula di tanah
atau di dinding tembok yang lembab, di atas batang pohon dan dapat pula
sebagai epifil (pada permukaan daun).

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Phylum Phaeophyta

1500 species of Brown

algae
Mostly marine and
include seaweed and kelp
All are multicellular and
large (often reaching
lengths of 147 feet)
Individual alga may grow
to a length of 100m with
a holdfast, stipe and
blade
Used in cosmetics and
most ice creams
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Divisio: Phaeophyta
Ganggang Coklat

Ciri-ciri
-Tubuh selalu berupa talus yang multiseluler yang
berbentuk filamen, lembaran atau menyerupai
semak/pohon yang dapat mencapai beberapa puluh
meter, terutama jenis-jenis yang hidup di lautan daerah
beriklim dingin.
- Bersel banyak dan berwarna pirang (fikosantin)
- Kromatofora mengandung klorofil a, karotin, xantofil,
dan fikosantin.
Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar hidup di laut hanya ada beberapa jenis
saja yang hidup di air tawar.
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Phylum Rhodophyta
4000

species of RED Algae

Most are marine
Smaller than brown algae and are
often found at a depth of 200 meters.
Contain chlorophyll a and C as well as
phycobilins which are important in
absorbing light that can penetrate
deep into the water
Have cells coated in carageenan
which is used in cosmetics, gelatin
capsules and some cheeses
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Divisio: Rhodophyta
(Ganggang Merah)

Ciri-ciri
1. Sel mempunyai dinding yang terdiri dari selulose .
Rhodophyceae tidak pernah menghasilkan sel-sel
berflagela.
2. Pigmen Khlorofil: terdiri dari khlorofil a, karotenoid, fikoeritrin
dan fikosianin yang sering disebut pigmen aksesoris. karoten Pigmen-pigmen tersebut terdapat dalam kloroplas
3. Cadangan makanan berupa tepung floride (hasil polimerase
dari glukosa) dan terdapat diluar khloroplas.
4. Talus Hampir semuanya multiseluler, hanya 2 marga saja
yang uniseluler. Talus yang multiseluler berbentuk filamen
silinder ataupun helaian. Talus umumnya melekat pada
substrat dengan perantaraan alat pelekat.
5. Habitat : laut yang dalam
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Other Phylum Representatives

Diatoms used in detergents,

paint removers, toothpaste

Dinoflagellates red tides

Golden algae

Important in
the formation
of petroleum
products
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Seaweeds are a multicellular

marine algae

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Lack true stems,

leaves, roots and
internal tubes that
transport nutrients
and water in most
plants
Brown algae, red
algae, and
multicellular green
algae may be
members of 3
separate kingdoms
96

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Fungi (jamur, cendawan)

Ciri-ciri:

Tidak berklorofil : tidak berfotosintesis

Tubuhnya mempunyai benang-benang hifa
Perkembangbiakan : vegetatif : dengan
spora, generatif, dengan isogami,
anisogami, oogami, gametangiogami dan
somatogami
Hidup secara heterotrof sebagai saprofit
atau parasit
Jarang hidup di air, kebanyakan di
daratan.

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Funguslike Protist

Cellular Slime molds

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Cellular slime molds

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Have both
unicellular
and
multicellular
life stages

100

Plasmodial Slime Molds

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Plasmodial slime molds

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Common everywhere
there is moist and
decaying matter
Large and branching,
but not multicellular.
The weblike form
increases the surface
area to contact food
water and oxygen
When food is is scarce
it addapts the
reproductive
structures at the
bottom
102

Water Molds

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THERES FUNGUS AMONG US

Look

into the eye.

Look deep into the eye.
There are no such things as molds.
All molds are actually fungi.
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That's a bunch of fungus.

That

is a bit surprising. We had

always heard about mold in the
shower or mold on the bread.

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. Mold is actually a type of fungus.

It

has a shape called a zygote to be

exact. While yeasts are single celled
fungi, molds are multicellular fungi
Bread takes one kind of fungus
(yeast) to make it rise.
If you leave the bread out, another
type of fungus comes in (bread mold)
to break it down. It's not amazing, but
it's true.
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Let's look at Club Fungi

Mushrooms!

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So what is a mushroom exactly?

It is bunches of strands living
underground called hyphae
(pronounced hi-fah). Those strands
are the basic fungus in action,
decomposing leaves, or rotting bark
on the ground.

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When it's time to reproduce, they

develop a stalk and cap,the mushroom
that you see popping out of the ground.

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It's

only one part of the

fungus. On the bottom of that
cap are a set of gills that
have little clubs with fungus
spores.

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ZYGOTES
We already talked a little about mold.
That is only one example of the
Zygote Fungi.
These have hyphae-like mushrooms
but they reproduce in a different way.
When it's time to make more fungi,
they create a stalk and release
something called zygospores (thus
the name zygote).
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 When

your bread gets old and green

or black, you are seeing a type of
zygote fungus in action. If you wait
long enough, you will see the stalks
develop and the zygotes released.

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SINGLE CELLS
Now

lets look at Sac Fungi, simple,

single celled fungi.

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Fungi

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Heterotrophic they
cannot make their
own food molecules
Some like mycorrhizae
absorb essential
minerals from the soil
needed by plants
About 80% of plant
disease is caused by
fungi which are
parasites
Many decompose
organic matter
114

Fungi absorb food after digesting it

outside their bodies

Secrete powerful enzymes that

digest their food externally then
absorb the nutrient molecules
Multicellular except yeast
Mycelium is a feeding network of
hyphae
Mushroom is just the above
ground reproductive structure of
a much more extensive
underground mycelium
Not celllulose cell walls, but chitin
which is a polymer of a nitrogencontaining sugar
No flagellated cells in their life
cycle

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Lichens fungi living mutualistically

with photosynthetic organisms

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The mutualistic merger

is so complete they
are actually named as
a species
Gives the two
organisms the ability
to survive in habitats
that are inhospitable
to either alone
Can tolerate severe
cold, withstand severe
drought but sensitive
to air pollutants
117

Mycorrhizae are symbiotic / mutual fungi on roots

Mycorrhizae:
a) increase surface area of roots
b) produce antibiotics to ward off
competing plants
c) Are specie specific to plants
d) Helped plants evolve on land
e) Seeds exposed to fungi spores
grow better
The plant provides carbohydrates
to the fungus

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I am not mold !
I am not rotting you!
I am Mycorrhizae,
I am a fun guy

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Fungi have enormous ecological

impact

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Decomposers and
recyclers of organic
matter
Used to ripen cheese
Yeasts used in baking,
brewing and
winemaking
Produce antibiotics
As well as the
mutualistic partners in
mycorrhizae and
lichens
120

YEAST
Yeast is used to make several types of
food for humans. We need yeast to
make breads. We also use them to
make alcohol. It's a whole process called
fermentation.

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Some fungi are beneficial.

Sugars

are broken down in an

environment without oxygen. It's
called anaerobic fermentation. And
voila, alcohol. Even though they are
single celled, you may find them in
colonies. They reproduce very
quickly and hang out together. It
takes a lot of them (because they are
so small) to get a lot of work done
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Parasitic fungi

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Corn smut, Dutch elm

disease and botrytis
Some of the fungi that
attach food crops are
toxic to humans
LSD is from the toxin
in ergots in grain
crops
Mycosis fungal
infection (ringworm,
athletes foot, vaginal
yeast infections)
123

Plant diversity is a nonrenewable

resource

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Antibiotics

one of the first antibiotics was called

penicillin. It was developed from a
fungus (a fungus named Penicillium
found on an orange, to be exact).

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Classification of the plants we will cover in this course.

Bryophytes
(mosses,
liverworts)

Pteridophytes
Ferns and
allies

Gymnosperms:
Conifers,
cycads etc

Angiosperms:
Flowering
plants

Mesozoic
120MYBP
Carboniferous
350MYBP
Devonian
400MYBP

Seeds
Vascular tissues (tracheids or derivatives)
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Nonvascular Plants
Bryophytes
Fewer

than 19,000

species
Three

groups

Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
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Bryophytes

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Includes mosses
Have a cuticle and
embryos retained on
the parent plant
Lack vascular tissue,
but some have waterconducting tubes
Lack internal support
Plants grow in a tight
pack holding each
other up
Flagellated sperm
must swim
128

Bryophytes
Small,

nonvascular, nonwooody
Gametophyte dominates life
cycle; has leaflike, stemlike,
and rootlike parts
Usually live in wet habitats
Flagellated sperm require water
to reach eggs

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Bryophytes
These are the mosses and liverworts, both relatively common wellknown groups of non-flowering plants typical of permanently
damp areas. (Actually a few specialise in dry open sites fire
sites, bare concrete etc). The dominant phase is a leafy form (the
gametophyte), which is genetically different to the stalked pods
that produce its spores.
A typical moss, showing
the spore capsule, which
is a genetically different
plant to the green fronds
from which it grows.
(More later..)

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Types of Bryophytes
Mosses (most common)
Liverworts (simplest)
Hornworts

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The hepatica: Liverworts. These also make genetically

distinct spore-dispersing individuals, but here the spores are
dispersed from an umbrella-like structure, while the main plant (the
gametophyte) is generally flattened, plate-like.
sporophytes
c. 2 cm

The common liverwort

Marchantia

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Marchantia: A Liverwort
Reproduces

Do not
post on
Internet

asexually by
gemmae
Gametophytes

are male or
female
Female gametophyte
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Figure 23.7
133
Page 389

Moss Life Cycle

zygote

Zygote grows,
develops into a
sporophyte while
still attached to
gametophyte.

mature
sporophyte

Diploid Stage

Fertilization

Haploid Stage

Meiosis

Spores
germinate.
spermproducing
structure

Figure 23.5
Page 388

eggproducing
structure

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male
gametophyte
female
gametophyte

134

Peat Mosses

350 species

Sphagnum is an example

Grow in acidic bogs; important ecosystems of

cold and temperate regions

Peat can be harvested and burned as fuel

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Tumbuhan lumut (Bryophyta)

merupakan sekumpulan tumbuhan kecil yang termasuk

dalam divisio Bryophyta (dari bahasa Yunani bryum,
"lumut").
Tumbuhan ini tingkatannya lebih tinggi dari Thallophyta
dengan habitus yang ber-macam2.
- Warna hijau 9klorofil a dan b)
- Selnya berdinding terdiri dari selulosa
- Alat kelamin terdiri atas anteridium dan arkegonium
- Terdiri dari lumut daun (musci) dan lumut hati (hepaticae)
organ penyerap haranya adalah rizoid (: "serupa akar").
Daun tumbuhan lumut dapat berfotosintesis. Tumbuhan
lumut merupakan tumbuhan pelopor, yang tumbuh di
suatu tempat sebelum tumbuhan lain mampu tumbuh.
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Perkembangbiakan
Tumbuhan lumut mengalami pergiliran keturunan dalam daur hidupnya. Apa
yang dikenal orang sebagai tumbuhan lumut merupakan tahap gametofit
(tumbuhan penghasil gamet) yang haploid (x = n). Dengan demikian,
terdapat tumbuhan lumut jantan dan betina karena satu tumbuhan tidak
dapat menghasilkan dua sel kelamin sekaligus.
Sel-sel kelamin jantan (sel sperma) dihasilkan dari anteridium dan sel-sel
kelamin betina (sel telur atau ovum) terletak di dalam arkegonium. Kedua
organ penghasil sel kelamin ini terletak di bagian puncak dari tumbuhan.
Anteridium yang masak akan melepas sel-sel sperma. Sel-sel sperma
berenang (pembuahan terjadi apabila kondisi lingkungan basah) menuju
arkegonium untuk membuahi ovum.
Ovum yang terbuahi akan tumbuh menjadi sporofit yang tidak mandiri karena
hidupnya disokong oleh gametofit. Sporofit ini diploid (x = 2n) dan berusia
pendek (3-6 bulan untuk mencapai tahap kemasakan). Sporofit akan
membentuk kapsula yang disebut sporogonium pada bagian ujung.
Sporogonium berisi spora haploid yang dibentuk melalui meiosis.
Sporogonium masak akan melepaskan spora. Spora tumbuh menjadi suatu
berkas-berkas yang disebut protonema. Berkas-berkas ini tumbuh meluas
dan pada tahap tertentu akan menumbuhkan gametofit baru.
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Vascular Plants
Majority
Have

of plants

internal tissues that carry

water and solutes

Two

groups

Seedless vascular plants

Seed-bearing vascular plants

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Seedless Vascular Plants

Arose

during the Devonian

Produce spores but no seeds
Four main groups
Whisk ferns
Lycophytes
Horsetails
Ferns
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Seedless vascular plants

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Includes ferns
Well-developed roots
and rigid stems
Flagellated sperm that
require water to reach
eggs
In many species the
leaves sprout from
stems that grow along
the ground
(fiddleheads)
140

Seedless Vascular Plants

Like bryophytes
Live in wet, humid places
Require water for
fertilization

Unlike bryophytes
Sporophyte is free-living
and has vascular tissues
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Seedless Vascular Plants

Lycophytes (Lycophyta)
Whisk ferns
(Psilophyta)
Horsetails
(Sphenophyta)
Ferns (Pterophyta)
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Pteridophytes: ferns, horsetails,

club mosses and allies.
Pteridophytes are the group of plants which first (as far as we can tell)
developed the tracheid cells which permit stems to rise high above any
water supply, and as such were the first colonists of dry land, at least 400
MYBP. We have a good fossil record of them (in fact our industry has
depended on burning this fossil record since the inception of the
industrial revolution!). The facets which fossilise show that apart from
the extinction of the giant forms, this group has changed little since the
Devonian.
Like mosses these plants have two genetically distinct phases in their life
cycle, but here the dominant phase is the sporophyte, the familiar fern
leaves etc.
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Ferns
These are ancient but still successful forms, in which the spore-bearing
stage is very familiar. Bracken Pteridium aquilinum is one of the most
widespread and pernicious weeds on the planet! We still have tree ferns,
native to Gondwanaland (Australasia, South America, Africa) but now
widely planted in tropical, subtropical and frost-free temperate areas. In
all cases spores are shed from the underside of the leaves (fronds).
Bracken Pteridium aquilinum

A tree fern Dicksonia antarctica

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Ferns (Pterophyta)
12,000

species, mostly tropical

Most common sporophyte structure

Perennial underground stem (rhizome)

Roots and fronds arise from rhizome
Young fronds are coiled fiddleheads
Mature fronds divided into leaflets
Spores form on lower surface of some
fronds
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Fern Life Cycle

Sporophyte still attached
to gametophyte

sorus
zygote
fertilization
egg

rhizome
Diploid Stage
meiosis
Haploid Stage
Spores develop

Spores
are
released

sperm
Figure 23.9
Page 391

mature
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146
Spore germinates

Horsetails (Sphenophyta): Equisetacea

These plants are every-day miracles.
There are only about 15 species in the
world, all in the genus Equisetum. It has
changed hardly at all since the
carboniferous period. I know of a
Carboniferous site in Yorkshire where
one can find 2m high horsetails still
standing, fossilised in a cliff, looking
exactly like living forms (only rather
bigger, though giant horsetail E.
telmateia can grow nearly this tall).
Also known as Lego plants, because the
stems comes apart at the nodes.
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Horsetails, contd.

The needle-like leaves are reinforced

with silica, and have been used as pan
scrubs. Few animals find them
palatable.
For all their ancientness and oddity they
are a serious weed, with immensely
deep root systems and an ability to
shrug off herbicides.
Gardeners Question Time (BBC)
advice on how to respond to horsetails
in your garden
Sell your house, in winter when the
stems arent visible.
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Club mosses
(Lycophyta):
Lycopodiacea

These rather nondescript crawling

plants are nowadays confined to a
minor role in northern forests on acid
soils. Present in the UK but easily
overlooked. The sole survivors of a
large group including vast forestforming trees in the carboniferous, the
first terrestrial forests. The have a
vascular system, and always one vein
running along the leaf axis.
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Pteridophyta / Filicophyta (Tumbuhan paku / paku-pakuan

)
Daur hidup (metagenesis) :
- Daur hidup tumbuhan paku : pergiliran keturunan, yang terdiri dari
dua fase utama:gametofit dan sporofit. Tumbuhan paku yang mudah
kita lihat merupakan bentuk fase sporofit karena menghasilkan spora.
Bentuk generasi fase gametofit dinamakan protalus (prothallus) atau
protalium (prothallium), yang berwujud tumbuhan kecil berupa
lembaran berwarna hijau, mirip lumut hati, tidak berakar (tetapi
memiliki rizoid sebagai penggantinya), tidak berbatang, tidak berdaun.
- Prothallium tumbuh dari spora yang jatuh di tempat yang lembab. Dari
prothallium berkembang anteridium (antheridium, organ penghasil
spermatozoid atau sel kelamin jantan) dan arkegonium
(archegonium, organ penghasil ovum atau sel telur). Pembuahan
mutlak memerlukan bantuan air sebagai media spermatozoid
berpindah menuju archegonium.
- Ovum yang terbuahi berkembang menjadi zigot, yang tumbuh
menjadi tumbuhan paku Setelah terjadi pembuahan (zigot
berkembang), protalium hilang
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Morfologi
- Akar yang tumbuh pertama tidak dominan, disusul akar
lain yang tumbuh dari batang
- Batang bercabang, menggarpu
- Dapat berbentuk semak , pohon sampai beberapa meter.
- Ukuran daun bervariasi sampai 6 m;pada umumnya
berdaun majemuk; tipe daun kecil, tidak bertangkai dan
hanya mempunyai satu tulang daun, tersusun rapat
menurut garis spiral (Lycopsida=paku kawat).
Perkembangbiakan : vegetatif : spora
- Sporangium dan spora terdapat pada daun-daun khusus :
sporofil (sering terkumpul membentuk alat yang
menyerupai bunga pada Spermatophyta).
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Berdasarkan klasifikasi baru (Smith et al., 2006),

tumbuhan paku dapat dikelompokkan sebagai
berikut:
Divisio: Lycophyta dengan satu kelas: Lycopsida.
Divisio: Pteridophyta dengan empat kelas :

Psilotopsida, mencakup Ophioglossales.

Equisetopsida
Marattiopsida
Polypodiopsida (=Pteridopsida, Filicopsida)

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Kelas Psilotopsida
Bangsa Ophioglossales
Suku Ophioglossaceae (termasuk Botrychiaceae,
Helminthostachyaceae)
Bangsa Psilotales
Suku Psilotaceae (termasuk Tmesipteridaceae)
Kelas Equisetopsida [=Sphenopsida]
Bangsa Equisetales
Suku Equisetaceae
Kelas Marattiopsida
Bangsa Marattiales
Suku Marattiaceae (termasuk Angiopteridaceae, Christenseniaceae,
Danaeaceae, Kaulfussiaceae)
Kelas Polypodiopsida [=Filicopsida, Pteridopsida]
Bangsa Osmundales
Suku Osmundaceae
Bangsa Hymenophyllales
Suku Hymenophyllaceae (termasuk Trichomanaceae)
Bangsa Gleicheniales
Suku Gleicheniaceae (termasuk Dicranopteridaceae,
Stromatopteridaceae)
Suku Dipteridaceae (termasuk Cheiropleuriaceae)
Suku Matoniaceae
153
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Bangsa Schizaeales
Suku Lygodiaceae
Suku Anemiaceae (termasuk Mohriaceae)
Suku Schizaeaceae
Bangsa Salviniales
Suku Marsileaceae (termasuk Pilulariaceae)
Suku Salviniaceae (termasuk Azollaceae)
Bangsa Cyatheales
Suku Thyrsopteridaceae
Suku Loxomataceae
Suku Culcitaceae
Suku Plagiogyriaceae
Suku Cibotiaceae
Suku Cyatheaceae (termasuk Alsophilaceae,
Hymenophyllopsidaceae)
Suku Dicksoniaceae (termasuk Lophosoriaceae)
Suku Metaxyaceae
Bangsa Polypodiales
Suku Lindsaeaceae (termasuk Cystodiaceae,
Lonchitidaceae)
Suku Saccolomataceae
Suku Dennstaedtiaceae (termasuk Hypolepidaceae,
Monachosoraceae, Pteridiaceae)
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Suku Pteridaceae (termasuk Acrostichaceae,

Actiniopteridaceae, Adiantaceae, Anopteraceae,
Antrophyaceae, Ceratopteridaceae, Cheilanthaceae,
Cryptogrammaceae, Hemionitidaceae,
Negripteridaceae, Parkeriaceae, Platyzomataceae,
Sinopteridaceae, Taenitidaceae, Vittariaceae)
Suku Aspleniaceae
Suku Thelypteridaceae
Suku Woodsiaceae (termasuk Athyriaceae,
Cystopteridaceae)
Suku Blechnaceae (termasuk Stenochlaenaceae)
Suku Onocleaceae
Suku Dryopteridaceae (termasuk Aspidiaceae,
Bolbitidaceae, Elaphoglossaceae, Hypodematiaceae,
Peranemataceae)
Suku Lomariopsidaceae (termasuk Nephrolepidaceae

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Suku Tectariaceae
Suku Oleandraceae
Suku Davalliaceae
Suku Polypodiaceae (termasuk Drynariaceae,
Grammitidaceae, Gymnogrammitidaceae,
Loxogrammaceae, Platyceriaceae,
Pleurisoriopsidaceae)

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Seed-Bearing Vascular Plants

Gymnosperms

first

arose

Cycads
Ginkgos
Gnetophytes
Conifers
Angiosperms

arose later

Monocots
Dicots
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Evolutionary Trend
Figure 23.2
Page 386

zygote

SP
GA ORO
ME PH
TO YTE
PH
YT (2n)
E(
n)

GREEN ALGA

BRYOPHYTE

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GYMNOSPERM

ANGIOSPERM

158

Traits of
Seed-Bearing Plants
Pollen

grains

Arise from megaspores

Develop into male gametophytes
Can be transported without water
Seeds

Embryo sporophyte inside nutritive

tissues and a protective coat
Can withstand hostile conditions
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Rise of Seed-Bearing Plants

Seeds

appeared about 360 million

years ago
Seed

ferns and gymnosperms

were dominant at first

Angiosperms

arose later

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Carboniferous
Giant
Sea

lycophytes and horsetails

level rose and fell repeatedly

Remains

of swamp forests were

repeatedly submerged and
compressed

Formation

of coal
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Seed-Bearing Plants
Microspores

that give rise to

pollen grains
Megaspores
More

inside ovules

water-conserving than

seedless vascular plants

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SPERMATOPHYTA
-Tingkat perkembangan yang paling tinggi
-Telah menghasilkan biji: tumbuhan berbiji
(Spermatophyta)
-Biji berasal dari bunga : Tumbuhan Berbunga (Anthophyta)
-Dibagi menjadi 2 sub divisi: tumbuhan berbiji telanjang
(Gymnospermae) dan berbiji tertutup = bakal biji terbungkus
oleh karpela/daun buah (Angiospermae)
- Angiospermae terdiri dari dua kelas : Dicotyledoneae
(tumbuhan biji belah/memiliki dua daun lembaga) dan
Monocotyledoneae ( mempunyai satu daun lembaga)

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- Kesepakatan umum tentang bagaimana tumbuhan

berbunga dikelompokkan mulai tercapai sejak hasil "
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group" (APG) dikeluarkan pada
tahun 1998 dan diperbaharui (update) pada tahun 2003
sebagai Sistem Klasifikasi APG II.
- Jenisnya diperkirakan berkisar antara 250 000 hingga
400 000 yang dikelompokkan menjadi 462 suku/famili
(APG, 1998).
- Dari keseluruhan spesies: monokotil = 23%
dikotil= 75%.

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Sepuluh besar suku tumbuhan menurut banyaknya jenis

adalah sebagai berikut:
Asteraceae atau Compositae (suku kenikir-kenikiran): 23.600
jenis
Orchidaceae (suku anggrek-anggrekan): 21.950
Fabaceae atau Leguminosae (suku polong-polongan): 19.400
Rubiaceae (suku kopi-kopian): 13.183
Poaceae, Glumiflorae, atau Gramineae (suku rumputrumputan): 10.035
Lamiaceae atau Labiatae (suku nilam-nilaman): 7.173
Euphorbiaceae (suku kastuba-kastubaan): 5.735
Cyperaceae (suku teki-tekian): 4.350
Malvaceae (suku kapas-kapasan): 4.225
Araceae (suku talas-talasan): 4.025
Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae dan Araceae adalah
monokotil.
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Kesepuluh suku di atas mencakup beragam jenis

tumbuhan penting dalam kehidupan manusia, baik
dalam bidang pertanian, kehutanan maupun industri.
Suku rumput-rumputan jelas merupakan suku terpenting
karena menghasilkan berbagai sumber energi pangan
bagi manusia dan ternak dari padi, gandum, jagung,
juwawut, tebu, serta sorgum. Suku polong-polongan
menempati tempat terpenting kedua, sebagai sumber
protein nabati dan sayuran utama dan berbagai peran
budaya lain (kayu, pewarna, dan racun). Suku nilamnilaman beranggotakan banyak tumbuhan penghasil
minyak atsiri dan bahan obat-obatan.

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Beberapa suku penting lainnya dalam kehidupan manusia adalah:

- Solanaceae (suku terong-terongan), sebagai sumber pangan
penting terutama sayuran
- Cucurbitaceae (suku labu-labuan), sebagai sumber sayuran
penting
- Brassicaceae atau Cruciferae (suku sawi-sawian), sebagai
sumber sayuran dan minyak pangan penting
- Alliaceae (suku bawang-bawangan), sebagai sumber sayuran
bumbu penting
- Piperaceae (suku sirih-sirihan), sebagai sumber rempah-rempah
penting.
- Arecaceae atau Palmae (suku pinang-pinangan), sebagai
pendukung kehidupan penting masyarakat agraris daerah tropika
- Rutaceae (suku jeruk-jerukan), Rosaceae (suku mawarmawaran), dan Myrtaceae (suku jambu-jambuan) banyak
menghasilkan buah-buahan penting. KRT-2010

167

Tumbuhan berbunga juga menjadi pemasok

sumberdaya alam dalam bentuk kayu, kertas,
serat (misalnya kapas, kapuk, and henep,
serat manila), obat-obatan (digitalis, kamfer),
tumbuhan hias (ruangan maupun terbuka), dan
berbagai daftar panjang kegunaan lain.

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Gymnosperms
Naked seed
because it isnt
produced in a
specialized
chamber
Conifers pine,
spruce, and fir are
the largest group

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Gymnosperms
This group contains many well-known plants, including all
coniferous trees (pines, larch, spruce etc), yews and allies, along
with other living fossils the cycads, plus a few simple plain
oddities thrown in to keep botanists happy.
Gymnosperm means naked seed, and indeed in this group the
fertilised seed protrudes from the cone/aril. They have apparently
lost the sporophyte generation (but see later), and are now trees
which shed viable seed that germinates to make a new tree the
pattern of seed germination which we are familiar with. They have
tracheids allowing water to be sucked to great heights: the this
group contains probably the largest (Sequoia) and oldest
(Bristlecone pine, Pinus aristata) organisms in the world.
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Gymnosperms
Plants

with naked seeds

Seeds

dont form inside an

ovary
Four

groups

Conifers

Ginkgos

Cycads

Gnetophytes

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Conifer Characteristics
Widest

known, largest number of

living species

Woody

trees or shrubs

Most

are evergreen

Bear

seeds on exposed cone scales

Most

produce woody cones

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Conifers

Female pine cone

Most people know one group of gymnosperms;

the conifers. Literally the cone bearers these
are pines, spruces, larches, firs etc.
Cones correctly stobili (1
strobilus) are sexual organs
either shedding pollen (male
cones) or bearing ovaries,
awaiting fertilisation by windblown pollen (female cones).
In fact all gymnosperms, plus
lycoods, have similar
structures. You will meet the
terms microsporangia (pollenproducing organs) and
megasporangia (egg producing
organs).
KRT-2010

male pine cone

173

Cycads
Most

diverse during
age of dinosaurs
Only 100 living
species
Palmlike appearance
Pollen-bearing and
seed-bearing cones
on different plants
Figure 23.14e
Page 394

KRT-2010

Do not
post on
Internet

Strobilus of a female cycad

174

Cycads

These plants look rather like stunted palms, or possibly

rather tough tree ferns, but are neither. They are
gymnosperms that have changed little since the Jurassic
period, when they were dominant land cover and
presumably staple food for herbivorous dinosaurs.
Now they are thinly scattered in tropical areas, some
highly endangered.
Males and females plants are separate, using a winddispersed pollen to fertilise their cones. The male
gamete is notable for using cilia to swim towards the
egg (the highest occurrence of cilia in the plant
kingdom).
Some cycads fix atmospheric nitrogen using a
symbiosis with blue-green algae living in their stems
and roots.
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Ginkgos
Diverse

during
age of dinosaurs
One surviving
species, Ginkgo
biloba
Deciduous trees
are male or
female
KRT-2010

Do not
post
photos
on
Internet

Fig.176
23.15
Page 395

Ginkgo biloba the wonderful

discovery
People had since the early days of fossil hunting been recovering
well-preserved fossil leaves from Ancient (Jurassic and earlier)
which looked like an unrolled pine needle. No living plant matched
this pattern.
Then in 1691 the German Engelbert Kaempfer discovered strange
trees with exactly this unfamiliar leaf form in Japan, cultivated in
temple gardens. They proved to be living specimens of Ginkgo,
one male and one female. Thankfully their seed was fertile, and has
now been widely propagated. The oldest in the UK is in Oxford
botanic gardens (pruned and now rather small for its age). Generally
males are planted as the female flower is rather sticky and smelly.
(Sex is coded by an X-Y chromosome system, as in mammals).
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3 Genera of Gnetophytes
Gnetum
Welwitschia
Ephedra
Do not
post on
Internet

Sporophyte of Ephedra
KRT-2010

Figure 23.16a
178
Page 395

Welwitschia mirabilis
This is certainly one of the strangest plants in the world, whose
classification inside the gymnosperms has long been assumed but
is confirmed by DNA analyses.
It lives only in the Namib desert, South Africa, in a region where
rain never falls. Instead it relies on the mist that condenses in
coastal regions where cold currents from the southern oceans well
up against the desert.
Welwitschia has only 2 leaves, long strap-like ones that grow
perpetually from their base while the ends become frayed and tatty.
It is dioecious.
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Pine Cones
Woody

scales of a pine cone

are the parts where megaspores

formed and developed into
female gametophytes
Male

cones, where microspores

and pollen are produced, are not

woody
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section
through one
ovule

surface view of one cone scale

(houses two ovules)

Pine Life Cycle

ovule

surface view of one cone scale

(houses a pollen-producing sac)
mature
sporophyte

section through a
pollen-producing sac

seed
coat

zygote
seeding
pollen tube
spermproducing cell

Diploid
embryo
seed
fertilization
meiosis
Haploid
microspores
eggs
form
megaspores
pollination
form
female
gametophyte
KRT-2010

Figure 23.17
181
Page 396

Conifer Distribution
Reproduce

more slowly than

angiosperms; at competitive
disadvantage in many habitats

Still

dominate in far north, at

higher elevations, and in certain
parts of southern hemisphere
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Angiosperms

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Flowering plants

183

Angiosperms
Flowering

plants

Dominant

land plants (260,000 species)

Ovules

and (after fertilization) seeds

are enclosed in an ovary

Three

main groups: magnoliids,

monocots, and eudicots
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Angiosperm Evolutionary Tree

water
Amborella lilies

star
anise

magnoliids

basal groups
KRT-2010

monocots

eudicots

Figure 23.19a
Page 398
185

Double Fertilization
Distinctive

feature of angiosperms

Male

gametocyte delivers two

sperm to an ovule

One

fertilizes egg; other fertilizes a

cell that gives rise to endosperm
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186

sporophyte

Flowering
Plant Life
Cycle

Diploid
Double fertilization

Haploid

pollination

two
sperm
enter
ovule

KRT-2010

Meiosis

microspores

female gametophyte

Meiosis
mitosis
without
cytoplasmic
division

Figure 23.20
187
Page 399

Angiosperms: Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons
Flowering plants (phylum Anthophyta) come in two fundamentally
different designs or classes, known as the Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons. Or Monocots and Dicots in botanical jargon.
Formally these are defined by the number of seed leaves, or
cotyledons, that emerge when the seed 1st germinates. In
Monocotyledons it is 1, in Dicotyledons it is 2. Coinciding with
this are a series of other characteristics which are so consistent that
everyone seemed happy that these are monophyletic groups,
splitting from the gymnosperms about 130 MYBP (early
Cretaceous).
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Angiosperm Classes: Monocots vs. Dicots

Characteristic

Monocot

Dicot

Flower parts

Usually in threes, or
multiples of threes

Usually in fours or
fives

Cotyledons

One

Two

Leaf venation

Usually parallel

Usually netlike

Primary vascular
bundles in stem

Complex arrangement In a ring

True secondary growth Absent

with vascular cambium

KRT-2010

Commonly
present

189

Monocotyledons
This truly monophyletic group contains all
grasses, sedges, rushes, bamboo etc. Orchids.
Pineapples and allies (the bromeliads). Lilies,
and their succulent relatives Aloes. Few trees
but including bananas and palms.

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Dicotyledons.

Actually the
eudicotyledons plus a few others
It is here that I have to confess to a certain
oversimplification. Neat though the division was, recent
(late 1990s) DNA work has shown that the group known
as Dicots consists of 4 groups, all as unrelated to each
other as they are to the monocots. Fortunately, virtually
all the ones you are likely to meet are in a good
monophyletic group, now called the Eudicotyledons.
(Sometimes DNA research makes a good simple system
needlessly complicated..)
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Eudicotyledons
Here we have most
gardens flowers, all
herbs, cacti, climbers, and
most trees.

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People and Plants

Plant

domestication began about

11,000 years ago

About

3,000 species have been

used as food

Now

about 200 plants are major

crops
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Nonfood Uses of Plants

Lumber,

paper, and fuel

Furniture
Rope
Thatched
Natural

roofing

insecticides

Drugs
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Plants of Abuse
Tobacco

plants are Nicotiana sp.

Cannabis sativa is source of
marijuana
Coca leaves are used to produce
cocaine
Toxic plant alkaloids, such as
henbane and belladona, have been
used as poisons and as medicine
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