Pressure and Sound

Measurement

Pressure and Sound Measurements

Pressure measurement using capacitive transducer
Microphone
Ultrasonic sound sensor and applications

Pressure Measurement
Pressure, P = F / A ; the normal force per
unit area
P of gas = uniform on all the walls that must
enclosed the gas completely
P of liquid = pressure will vary
greatest at the bottom of vessel
and zero on the top surface

Pressure Measurement
Static Pressure
Pressure for a fluid that is not moving in space
Not being pumped through pipe or channel

Dynamic Pressure
The pressure exerts on its surrounding depends on the
motion.
Pressure can depend on flow, compressibility of fluid and
external force

stagnation pressure (or pitot pressure) = the static pressure at a stagnation

point in a fluid flow.
stagnation point = a point in a flow field where the local velocity of the fluid is
zero

Pressure Measurement
Gauge Pressure
Compared to atmospheric pressure

Pg = Pabs Pat
Pg = gauge pressure
Pabs= absolute system pressure
Pat = atmospheric pressure (101.325kPa or 14.7 psi)

Pressure Measurement
Head Pressure
Refer to static pressure produced by the weight of liquid
above a point
Depend only on height of liquid above point and liquid
density
For fluid = describe pressure of fluid in a tank or a pipe

P gh
P = Pressure in Pa
= density in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
h = depth in liquid in m

Pressure Measurement
Example

hp

A tank holds water in depth of 7.0 ft. what is the pressure

in Pa (density = 10 kg/m3) at the bottom of the tank.

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Diaphragm
Common element to convert pressure information into
physical displacement.
Due to large deflections for small pressure changes,
suitable to be used for pressure above 1 atmospheric.
If pressure P1 exist on one side of diaphragm, and P2 on
the other, the net force:

F = (P2 P1)A where,

A = diaphragm area in m2
P1, P2 = pressure in N/m2

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Diaphragm
Like a spring extend or contract until Hookess law is
developed that balances the pressure difference force
Hooke's law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the
amount by which a material body is deformed (the strain) is
linearly related to the force causing the deformation (the stress).

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Bellows
Much like diaphragm converts a pressure differential into
physical displacement
Displacement more in straight-line expansion
The accordion shaped sides of bellow is
made by metal. When there is pressure
difference, a net force will exist on flat,
front surface of bellow.
The bellows assembly will collapse like accordion if P2 > P1
and expand if P2 <P1.
Displacement is proportion to pressure difference
Conversion of pressure to displacement is very nearly linear.

Bellows

1.
2.

Suggestion use LVDT to measure

displacement.
This sensor will output LVDT voltage, which is
linearly related to pressure.
Displacement and pressure are nearly linearly
related because:
LVDT voltage is linear with displacement
Voltage and pressure are also linearly related.

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Bourdon Tube

i.

Most commonly used concept

A hard metal tube (bronze/brass) is
flattened
ii. One end is closed
iii. The tube is bent to curve/arc/spiral
iv. Open end is attached to header,
pressure introduced inside tube
v. Tube will deflect: inside applied
pressure is different from outside
pressure.
vi. Tube straighten out: IP > OP
vii. Tube curve more: IP < OP

Pressure Sensor
Electronic Conversions

Simplest technique use mechanical

linkage connected to potentiometer
Employ strain gauge directly on a
diaphragm
LVDT and other inductive device are
used to convert bellows/Bourdon tube
motion into proportional electrical signal.
Pressure measurement accomplish using
diaphragm with feedback configuration.
1.
2.

Feedback keeps diaphragm from

moving using induction motor
Error signal in feedback sys. provides
electrical measurement of the pressure.

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Solid State Pressure Sensors
Extensive application pressure range of 0 to 100kPa
Require three connections: DC power, ground, output sensor
Basic sensing element:
- A small wafer of silicon acting as a diaphragm, deflect in
response to pressure difference.
- The deflection is sensed by semiconductor strain gauge grown
directly on the silicon wafer.
- Signal conditioning includes temp. compensation, and
circuitry that provides an output voltage that varies linearly with
pressure over a specific operating range.

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Solid State Pressure Sensors
Simple modification convert basic sensor to absolute or
differential-type gauge
Absolute pressure measurement one side of the wafer is
sealed off and evacuated
Differential measurement facilities are provided to allow
application of independent pressures p1 and p2 to the two sides
of the diaphragm

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Solid State Pressure Sensors characteristics :
Sensitivities in the range of 10 to 100mV/kPa
Response time in the order of 10ms. Defined by time change
from 10% to 90% of final value following a step change in
input pressure.
Linear voltage vs. pressure within specific operational range.
Easy of use : only 3 connections
- Dc power (typically 5V), ground & sensor output voltage.
Application in industry:
Where low pressure need to be measured.
Commercial fields: home appliances

Pressure Sensor (p>1atm)

Exercise ss
A Solid State pressure sensor that outputs 25 mV/kPa for a
pressure variation of 0.0 to 25kPa will be used to measure the level
of a liquid with a density of 1.3 x 103 kg/m3 . What voltage output
will be expected for level variations from 0 to 2.0m? What is the
sensitivity for level measurement expressed in mV/cm?
Hint:
1. Use this equation to find variation of pressure from 0-2m.

P gh

2. Use the transfer function 25mV/kPa to find the relation between

solid state output and pressure.
3. Find solid state output in mV, if the change in h level is1 cm.

Stop

Pressure Sensor (p<1atm)

Pirani gauge
Based on thermal conductivity of filament
When pressure increases, gas absorbs more heat.
Filament temperature decreases, so as the resistance.

Thermocouple
A second pressure gauge measures filament temperature using
a thermocouple directly attached to the heated filament.
In this case, ambient room temp. serves as a reference for the
thermocouple
Calibration of both Pirani and thermocouple gauges depends
on type of gas for which the pressure being measured.

Pressure Sensor (p<1atm)

Ionization Gauge
Useful for the measurement of very low pressure from about 10-13
atm to 10-3 atm.
Heated filament emit electrons, which get attracted to positive
electrode.
Collision between electron and gas molecule produces ions, which
are attracted to negative electrode.
The number of ions per unit volume depends on the gas pressure,
and hence the current also depends on gas pressure.
This current is directly proportional to the gas pressure

Microphones
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound to electrical
signal.
The electric signal from a microphone has the same frequency and
proportionate amplitude to the sound.
Different technologies are available for construction of microphones.
In a capacitor microphone, also known as a condenser
microphone, the diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and
the distance changing vibrations produce changes in a voltage
maintained across the capacitor plates.
Capacitor microphones can be expensive and require a power
supply, but give a high-quality sound signal.

Microphones
A foil electret microphone is a relatively new type of condenser
microphone invented at Bell laboratories in 1962, and often simply
called an electret microphone.
An electret is a dielectric material that has been permanently
electrically charged or polarised.
Unlike other condenser microphones they require no biasing DC
voltage.
They are frequently phantom powered in sound reinforcement
applications.

Microphones
In the dynamic microphone a small movable induction coil, positioned
in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, is attached to the
diaphragm.
When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the magnetic field,
producing a varying current in the coil.
Dynamic microphones are robust and relatively inexpensive, and are
used in a wide variety of applications.
Ribbon microphones is a thin, corrugated metal ribbon is suspended in
a magnetic field: vibration of the ribbon in the magnetic field generates a
changing voltage.
Ribbon microphones detect sound in a bidirectional pattern: this
characteristic is useful in such applications as radio and television
interviews, where it can reject unnecessary sound.

Microphones
A carbon microphone, formerly used in telephone handsets, is a
capsule containing carbon granules pressed between two metal
plates.
A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a current to
flow through the carbon.
One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy with
incident sound waves, applying a varying pressure to the carbon.
The changing pressure deforms the granules, and this causes
the electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change .
Since the voltage across a conductor is proportional to its
resistance, the voltage across the capsule varies according to
the sound pressure.
A piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricity - the
tendency of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to
pressure - to convert vibrations into an electrical signal.
Ex.: Crystal microphone

Microphones
A lavalier/lav microphone is small electret or dynamic microphone.
Often clipped to tie or collar and allow for mobile, hands-free
usage.
They are most often used in theatrical, public speaking, film and
television productions.

Ultrasonic Sensors
Used mainly in the areas of testing and inspection,
especially for non-destructive testing
Used for sensing distance, level, speed and axial
medical devices, dimensional gaging and robotic
applications.
The ultrasonic transducer emits a pulse of ultrasonic
wave and receives the wave echo.

Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic sensors enable detection, without contact, of any object
irrespective of its:
material (metal, plastic, wood, cardboard, etc.),
nature (solid, liquid, powder, etc.),
color,
degree of transparency.
They are used in industrial applications:
the position of machine parts,
the presence of the windscreen during automobile assembly,
the flow of objects on a conveyor system: glass bottles,
cardboard packages, cakes, etc.,
the level
of different color paints in pots
of plastic pellets in injection moulding machine feeders.

Ultrasonic Sensors
Working principles
Send out sound waves above audible frequencies (ultrasonic), and
listen for the return.
Uses the time delay, and the speed of sound in air to determine
distance to object. (i.e., Dist.= (elapsed time x speed of sound)/2 )
Also can be used just to see if object is there.

Different Type of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic proximity sensor with analog output stage

Both current and voltage outputs from the sensor are proportional to
the distance of the sensor from the target. This allows simple noncontact measurement

Different Type of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic retro-reflective sensor

A fixed machine part is used here as a reflector. The time difference

between the emission and the reception of an ultrasonic signal
(known as propagation time) is therefore fixed and known. When an
object comes within this sensing distance the output is activated.

Different Type of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic through beam sensor
These sensors are ideal for applications in which objects follow each
other in quick succession. They are also recommended when high
switching frequencies are required, up to 200 Hz

Ultrasonic Sensors ; Terminology

Nominal sensing distance (Sn)

Conventional value for indicating the sensing distance.
Sensing range (Sd)
Zone in which the sensor is sensitive to objects.
Minimum sensing distance
Lower limit of the specified sensing range.
Maximum sensing distance
Upper limit of the specified sensing range.

Ultrasonic Sensors ; Terminology

Assured operating distance (Sa)

This corresponds to the operating zone of the sensor (activation of
outputs), and is included in the sensing range.
Its limits are fixed:

Blind zone
Zone between the sensing face of the sensor and the minimum
sensing distance in which no object can be reliably detected.
Avoid any passing of objects in this blind zone during operation
of the sensor. This could lead to instability of the output states.
Overall beam angle
-

Solid angle around the reference axis of an ultrasonic proximity

Advantages of Ultrasonics
Detection
Can detect more types of objects .
Very good for telling distances
Longer range than capacitive and inductive sensors
Can operate in harsh conditions
Quick response time
Long operational life, with virtually unlimited cycles.

Limitations of Ultrasonics Detection

Have a dead zone close to the face of the sensor cant detect
very close objects
Cant detect very small objects (detectable size depends on
wavelength) (except for really high tech ones 0.076mm!)
Speed depends on material (cotton, sponge, etc. require slower
frequencies)
Smooth surfaced objects must be aligned correctly or echo wont
return to sensor

Ultrasonic Transmitter/Receiver