Sound is a sensation of acoustic waves (disturbance/pressure

fluctuations setup in a medium)

Unpleasant, unwanted, disturbing sound is generally treated

as Noise and is a highly subjective feeling

 Sound is a disturbance that propagates through a medium

having properties of inertia ( mass ) and elasticity. The
medium by which the audible waves are transmitted is air.
Basically sound propagation is simply the molecular
transfer of motional energy. Hence it cannot pass through
vacuum.

Guess how much is particle

displacement??
8e-3nm to 0.1mm

Frequency: Number of pressure

cycles / time
also called pitch of sound (in Hz)

The disturbance gradually diminishes as it travels

outwards since the initial amount of energy is
gradually spreading over a wider area. If the
disturbance is confined to one dimension ( tube / thin
rod), it does not diminish as it travels ( except loses
at the walls of the tube )

BASICS OF NOISE
Sound may be described as a disturbance that propagates through a
physical ( elastic ) medium.
Sound propagates as longitudinal waves in which the particles of the
medium oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation.
This vibration disturbs the air particles near the object and sets them
vibrating, producing a variation in normal atmospheric pressure. The
disturbance spreads and when the pressure variations reach our ear drums,
they too set to vibrating.
This vibration of our ear drums is translated by our complicated hearing
mechanisms into the sensation we call sound .
Sound pressure is therefore the incremental variation about the ambient
atmospheric pressure.

 Wavelength :
It is defined as the distance between two successive
compressions or two successive rarefactions. Since a
compression, travelling with a uniform velocity , moves
through a distance of one wavelength in the time period T,
we have

= / T
Where the velocity of sound is the characteristic of the
medium through which sound propagates. The speed of
the sound in air is given by

FREQUENCY DEPENDENT HUMAN RESPONSE TO SOUND

The audible frequency range:

Acoustic energy associated with frequencies above 20kHz is
inaudible to a human being. The sound above 20kHz is
therefore called ultrasonic sound.
The sound in the frequency range 15kHz to 20kHz may be
audible to those people having acute ( Sharp) hearing. For
older people, sound at frequencies above 15kHz is
generally not audible.
The audible frequency range extends upto 15Hz. Sounds at
frequency lower than this cannot be heard, but can be felt
only if there are sufficiently strong. Such sounds are called
infrasonic sound.

FREQUENCY DEPENDENT HUMAN RESPONSE TO SOUND

Frequency based hearing sensitivity:

Human auditory system is not equally sensitive at all
frequencies in the audible range. The sensitivity is good in
the frequency range 1000Hz to 4000Hz. The sensitivity is
maximum precisely in the vicinity of frequency of 3000Hz
for people with normal hearing capacity.
Measurement through experimental probes inserted into the
auditory canal and connected to a microphone confirm the
fact that the resonance does occur at about 3000Hz
frequency.
Measurement under the resonant conditions indicate that the
acoustic pressure level at the drum is about 10dB higher
than that at the entrance to the canal.

THE DECIBEL SCALE

The range of audible sound pressure to which the human ear is
like to be subjected is from 0.00002 to 200N/m 2
In view of very wide range of sound pressures and intensities, it is
customary to describe these quantities through the use of
logarithmic scales known as sound levels.
The advantage of using logarithmic scale :
is that we are saved from dealing in enormous numbers which
might be difficult to manipulate.
Human ear subjectively judges the relative loudness of two sounds
by the ratio of their intensities, which is logarithmic behavior.
The decibel scale was originally used by electrical engineering for
use in the field of telecommunication. The bel in electrical
measurement, represents a ratio of ten to one. The scale was
chosen to compress a scale of enormous numbers.

THE DECIBEL SCALE

Mathematically, the bel of a quantity A relative to reference
quantity A0 is defined as

the decibel of a quantity A relative to reference quantity A 0 is

defined as

Thus a quantity A that is 100 times larger than A 0 has a decibel

level of 20 and a quantity A that is 1000 times larger than A 0
has a decibel of 30.

THE DECIBEL SCALE

SOUND POWER LEVEL
The term sound power level implies that acoustic power radiated by a given
sound source with respect to the international reference of 10 -12 W.
Lw= 10 log 10 (W/Wref) dB
W is the sound power of the given source .

SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL (SIL)

The sound intensity at a given point in a sound field, in a given direction, is
defined as the average sound power passing through an area of 1m 2
perpendicular to the given direction at that point. The sound intensity for a
plane and spherical sound wave, propagating in a free field along the direction
of wave propagation is given by

I=p2/
Li= 10 log

where
10 (I/Iref) dB

=(1.21kg/m3)x(343m/s)=415kg/m2

Where
p is the r.m.s sound pressure in N/m 2.
is the density of the medium under constant equilibrium condition in kg/m 3.
is the velocity of the sound in the medium in m/s
is defined as the characteristic impedance of the medium.
I is sound intensity in W/m 2
Iref is reference sound intensity in 10 -12W/m2

THE DECIBEL SCALE

SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
This is the most common decibel scale used and is measured directly
of sound level meter. However these meters read a time average
pressure. i.e. the root mean square pressure.
The r.m.s pressure is given in terms of maximum pressure as prms=
p/2.
As the intensity of sound is proportional to the square of maximum
sound pressure in N/m2, the sound pressure level is given by

Lp= 10 log

10

(p2 / p2 re) 20 log

Pref = 2 x 10-5 N/m2.

10

(p / pref) dB

Relationship among sound power level and sound intensity level

Assume the sound source to be a point source and periodic sound
waves to be propagating from it in the form of spherical waves. Let
I be the intensity of sound at a distance of r from the source. The
sound energy is spread out equally in all directions and considered
to be distributed uniformly over a sphere of radius r and surface
area S= 4r2. Thus the intensity at a distance of r from a point
source of power W watts is given by
( referring to sound power level)

This is known as inverse square law, which states that the intensity of
sound is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from
the source.

Relationship among Sound Power Level and Sound Intensity Level

Taking reference as the surface areas Sref of the imaginary sphere as

1m2.

Above expression helps us in finding our the sound intensity level at a

distance of r from the source of sound of known sound power level
Lw and conversely, if the sound intensity level L i is established by
measurement at a distance of r from the source, the sound power
level of the source of sound can be estimated.

Relationship among Sound Intensity Level and Sound Pressure Level

For a free progressive sound wave, the relation between the sound intensity I, maximum
pressure amplitude p in N/m2, the average density of air ( which is approximately equal to
1.20kg/m3 at 20C) and the velocity of wave propagation is given by

I=p2/

and

Li= 10 log 10 (I/Iref) dB

DECIBEL ADDITION, SUBTRACTION AND AVERAGING

The solution of industrial noise problems generally requires that pressures and powers be
manipulated by means of decibel additions and subtractions.
Sometimes the sound pressure levels are averaged , again in decibels, in the calculation of
source directivity.

DECIBEL SUBTRACTION AND BACKGROUND NOISE :

In quite a few cases, it becomes desirable to subtract an ambient or background sound
pressure level from a total measured value of sound level.

AVERAGING DECIBELS:

Noise dose level

The two factors that determine how hazardous noise is
are:
Intensity (Loudness) measured in dBA
Time of Exposure measured in Hours and Minutes
The louder the noise, the more hazardous it is. Also, the longer the exposure
time, the more hazardous the noise is.
A Noise Dose combines both loudness and time and is a convenient way
of describing the relative hazard of the noise

Loudness is measured using a Logarithmic Scale.

This means that a 10 decibel increase does not simply add 10 to the previous
level. It multiplies the previous level by 10.

Threshold of Hearing...............................
0 dBA
Quiet Room................................................. 45 dBA
Conversation.............................................. 55 dBA = 45 dBA x 10
Car (50 mph at 50 ft).................................. 65 dBA = 45 dBA x 100
End Loader (In Good Cab)......................
75 dBA = 45 dBA x 1,000
Haul Truck (In Good Cab).......................
85 dBA = 45 dBA x 10,000
Crusher........................................................
95 dBA = 45 dBA x 100,000
Old Dozer (No Cab)................................... 105 dBA = 45 dBA x 1,000,000
Air Track Drill (No Controls).................... 115 dBA = 45 dBA x 10,000,000

115 dBA has 10 million times more sound energy than 45 dBA and is capable of
causing 10 million times more damage to hearing

Allowable Noise exposure is based on

Noise Dose.
Noise Dose is expressed as a percentage of the allowable limit. How high it goes depends on
both noise intensity and time of exposure to noise.
Louder (More dBA) = More Noise Dose
Longer (More Time) = More Noise Dose
Absolute Quiet = 0% Noise Dose
85 dBA for 8 Hrs = 50% Noise Dose
90 dBA for 8 hrs = 100% Noise Dose
95 dBA for 8 Hrs = 200% Noise Dose
95 dBA for 12 Hrs = 300% Noise Dose

Different combinations of Loudness and Time can produce the same Noise Dose. The following
combinations can all produce about 75% Noise Dose.

84 dBA for 14 Hrs = 76%

85 dBA for 12 Hrs = 75%
87 dBA for 9 Hrs = 74%
88 dBA for 8 Hrs = 76%
93 dBA for 4 Hrs = 76%
95 dBA for 3 Hrs = 75%
98 dBA for 2 Hrs = 75%
103 dBA for
1 Hr = 76%
108 dBA for 30 Min = 76%
113 dBA for 15 Min = 76%

Legislation ( laws considered

collectively)

Measurement and Analysis of noise

There are many reasons to make noise measurements. Noise data contains amplitude, frequency,
time or phase information, which allows us to:
1. Identify and locate dominant noise sources
2. Optimize selection of noise control devices, methods, materials
3. Evaluate and compare noise control measures
4. Determine compliance with noise criteria and regulations
5. Quantify the strength (power) of a sound source
6. Determine the acoustic qualities of a room and its suitability for various uses and many, many
more..

Sound measuring
instruments

Many types of measuring systems can be used for the measurement of sound
depending on the purpose of the study, the characteristics of sound and the extent of
information that is desired about the sound.
The various elements in a measuring system are:
a. the transducer; that is, the microphone;
b. the electronic amplifier and calibrated attenuator for gain control;
c. the frequency weighting or analyzing possibilities;
d. the data storage facilities;
e. the display.

Sound level meter block diagram

The two main characteristics are:

1. The frequency response: that is, the deviation between the measured value and
the true value as a function of the frequency.
As the ear is capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the
frequency response of the sound level meter should be good, with

variations

smaller than 1 dB, over that range

2. The dynamic range: that is, the range in dB over which the measured value is
proportional to the true value, at a given frequency (usually 1000 Hz).
This range is limited at low levels by the electrical background noise of
instrument and at high levels by the signal distortion caused
by overloading the microphone or amplifiers.

the

a) MICROPHONES
1.

The Different Types:

. The microphone is the interface between the acoustic field and the measuring
system.
. It responds to sound pressure and transforms it into an electric signal which
can be interpreted by the measuring instrument (e.g. the sound level meter).
. The best instrument cannot give a result better than the output from the
microphone. Therefore, its selection and use must be carefully carried out to
avoid errors.
. When selecting a microphone, its characteristics must be known so that its
technical performance (e.g. frequency response, dynamic range, directivity,
stability), in terms of accuracy and precision, meets the requirements of the
measurement in question, taking into account the expected conditions of use
(e.g. ambient temperature, humidity, wind, pollution).

In a piezoelectric microphone, the membrane is attached to a piezoelectric crystal

which generates an electric current when submitted to mechanical tension.
The vibrations in the air, resulting from the sound waves, are picked up by the
microphone membrane and the resulting pressure on the piezoelectric crystal
transforms the vibration into an electric signal.
These microphones are stable, mechanically robust and not appreciably influenced by
ambient climatic conditions. They are often used in sound survey meters.

In a Condenser Microphone, the

microphone membrane is built parallel
to a fixed plate and forms with it a
condenser.
A potential differential is applied
between the two plates using a
d.c.voltage supply (the polarisation
voltage).
The movements, which the sound waves provoke in the membrane, give origin to
variations in the electrical capacitance and therefore in a small electric current.
These microphones are more accurate than the other types and are mostly used
in precision sound level meters.
However, they are more prone to being affected by dirt and moisture.

b) SOUND LEVEL METERS

The electrical signal from the transducer is
fed to the pre-amplifier of the sound level
meter and, if needed, a weighted filter
over a specified range of frequencies.
Further amplification prepares
the signal either for output to other
instruments such as a tape recorder or for
rectification and direct reading on the
meter.
The rectifier gives the RMS value of the signal. The RMS signal is then exponentially
averaged using a time constant of 0.1 s ("FAST") or 1 s ("SLOW") and the result is displayed
digitally or on an analog meter.

FREQUENCY ANALYZERS
A number of analyzers are available for use with the sound level meter. The simplest
models are sets of passive filters (octave or one third octave) that can be inserted
between the two amplifiers of the SLM.
Figure
gives the typical 500 Hz
frequency characteristic of an octave
band filter.
The practical implication of this is that a
signal of 100 dB at 1000 Hz for instance
will give a reading of 76 dB in the
octave bands centred at 500 Hz and 2000
Hz, although no energy is present at
frequencies covered by these two
octave bands.