Pollution, Pollutants and

their Effects

Prof. S.N.Upadhyay
Visiting Professor, RGIPT, Rae Bareli
(Ex-Director & Professor, IIT BHU,
Varanasi)

Introduction

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Our body is made of five elements

(Panch Tatva, Panch Mahabhoot). Our
activities and life are controlled by these
elements.
All of us have equal rights over natural
resources.
IT-BHU

All citizens have inherent right to the

enjoyment of pure and uncontaminated air and
water and soil; this right should be regarded
as belonging to the whole community; no one
should be allowed to trespass upon it by his
carelessness or his avarice or even his
ignorance.

- Massachusetts Board of Health (USA), 1869

IT-BHU

Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration

of our surroundings, through direct or indirect effects
of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels,
chemical and physical conditions and abundance of
organisms. These changes may affect human directly
or through their supplies of water and of agricultural
and other biological products, their physical objects or
possessions, or their opportunities for recreation and
appreciation of nature.

- Presidents Science Advisory Community, USA, 1965

IT-BHU

Cradle to grave pollution refers to the many ways that a single product,
such as a car, can pollute during its lifetime. Each step, from mining
through final disposal, often results in the release of dozens of toxic
pollutants into the air, water, and land. Nearly all products, including food
and other agricultural products, create such stepwise pollution.

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) elucidates such processes.

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Definition of Pollution

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Pollution
Any waste discharges or even
natural environmental changes that
are directly detrimental to man.
Environmental pollution is any
disruption by man of natural system.
Something out of place.

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Pollution
An undesirable change in the physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics of
our air, land, and water, that may or will
hostilely affect human life or that of other
desirable species or industrial processes,
living conditions, and cultural assets or that
may or will waste or deteriorate our natural
resources.

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Pollution
Any man made addition into the
environment which is not ecologically
compatible to the existing environment.
Any unreasonable interference with the
beneficial uses of environment or its
components.
An impairment of suitability of air, water or
land mass for any of its beneficial uses,
actual or potential, by man caused
changes in quality.
IT-BHU

Pollution
Acts of introduction by man of extraneous
substances or energy into the environment
that induce unfavorable changes affecting
man directly or indirectly by endangering
his health, harming his living, resources
and ecosystem or by interfering with the
legitimate use of the environment.

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Pollution
All citizens have an inherent right to the

enjoyment of pure and uncontaminated air

and water and soil, this right should be
regarded as belonging to the whole
community, no one should be allowed to
trespass upon it by his carelessness, or his
avarice or even his ignorance.
- Massachusetts Board of Health, 1869

Pollution
Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of

our surroundings, through direct or indirect effects of

changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and
physical conditions and abundance of organisms. These
changes may affect human directly or through their
supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological
products, their physical objects or possessions, or their
opportunities for recreation and appreciation
of nature.
- Presidents Science Advisory Community, USA, 1965

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
sufficient quantities, of such characteristics, and
for such duration as to be or to threaten to be
injurious to humans, plants, or animals or to
property or which reasonably interferes with the
comfortable use and enjoyment of life or property.

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Air Pollution
The presence in outdoor atmosphere of one

or more contaminants, such as dust, mist,

fumes, gas, odor, smoke or vapor in
quantities or characteristics and for duration
such as to be injurious to human, plant or
animal life or property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life.

Types of Pollution and

Pollutants

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Types of Pollution
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Solid Waste
Thermal Pollution
Noise Pollution
Land Degradation
Radiation Pollution

(Electromagnetic & Radioactive)

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 Pollutant

Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present

in such concentrations as may be or tend to be
injurious to environment. [EP Act, 1986]

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Classification of Pollutants
Source

Natural

Activity

Agricultural, Domestic, Industrial, Mining

Stability

Primary

Physical Form

Particulate, Gaseous, Liquid, Solid, Noise,

Thermal, Biological

Chemical Nature

Inorganic

Organic

Biostability

Biodegradable

Non-biodegradable*

Life

Non-persistent

Persistent

Toxic Effect

Non-threshold

Threshold

* Biomagnifiable

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Anthropogenic
Secondary

 Hazardous substances
Any substance or preparation which by reason
of its chemical or physical properties, or
handling, is liable to cause harm to humanbeings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment. [EP
Act, 1986]

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Chemicals- Hazardous, Toxic

Hazardous Chemicals:

Acids, caustics, explosives, flammables, irritants,

and sensitizers
Toxic Chemicals:
These are poisonous, react with specific cellular
components to kill cells.
General poisons
Target specific poisons
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Attributes of Pollutants

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Attributes of Pollutants
Threshold Levels
Minimal level beyond which harmful effects become evident.
Persistence
Long stay in the environment in unchanged condition, Most of
the persistent pollutants (except metals) are human made.
Synergism
Certain combinations of pollutants may be more harmful than
individual pollutants.
Uranium miners who smoke tobacco have unusually high
incidence of lung cancer.
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HARMFUL EFFECT

NON-THRESHOLD

NON-THRESHOLD

DOSAGE

Non-threshold and Threshold Persistent Pollutants

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Non-Persistent Pollutants
Such pollutants do not remain in the environment for
long time. Most of these are biodegradable. Others
decompose or get converted to inert products as a
result of chemical reactions.
Biodegradable Wastes- Garbage, food industry waste,
sewage, animal waste, farm waste, etc.
Non-biodegradable- These are essentially synthetic
substances. Most of these break down as a result of
chemical oxidation or hydrolysis. Organophosphates
are typical examples.
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Persistence
Some pollutants remain dangerous indefinitely-Beryllium,

Lead, Mercury
Pesticides- persistence is defined as time needed for the
pesticide level to reduce to less than 25% of the original.

Inorganic-Hg

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Chlordane

5 years

DDT

4 years

Dieldrin

3 years

Picloram

1.5 years

2,4,5-T

5 months

2,4-D

1 month

Organic-Hg takes 10-100 yrs

(Methyl-Hg)

Examples-DDT, PCBs, Metals

DDT accumulates in food chain and causes death in high
concentrations.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are highly stable compounds that
resist changes from heat, acids, bases and oxidation. These are used in
transformers and electrical capacitors, inks, plastics, tapes, paints,
glue, waxes and polishes. PCBs are harmful to fish and other aquatic
forms of life because they interfere with reproduction. In humans,
PCBs produce liver ailments and skin lesions. In high concentrations
they damage the nervous system and they are suspected carcinogens.
Metals such as Hg, Be, Pb, Cd, etc are toxic. Some metals produce
kidney and liver disorders, weaken bone structure, damage central
nervous system, cause blindness and lead to death.

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Organisms occurring higher on the food pyramid tend to

have increasingly greater concentration of toxic
substances in their tissue. (Note: ppm=parts per million)
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Long-distance Movement of
Pollutants
Radioactive fall out from atmospheric nuclear tests

is detectable throughout the world within days or

weeks.
DDT etc., developed for pesticidal use in 1930s for

military application, and released for civilian use

in 1945, have been detected up to 100 ppb in liver
and other parts of animals that never go north of
antarctic ice zone.
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Synergism and Antagonism

Combined effects of two or more pollutants are more

severe or even qualitatively different from the

individual effects. This is synergism.

Increase in toxicity of a pollutant due to another

pollutant is potentiation. Aerosols of soluble salts of Fe,

Mn, and V increase the toxicity of sulfur dioxide.

Sometimes combined effect reduces the severity rather

than increasing, this is known antagonism. Cyanide is

toxic to aquatic life in presence of Zn or Cd, but is less
toxic in presence of Ni due to a complex formation.

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Three kinds of chemical interactions: antagonism (B cancels

or subtracts from A), additivity (A and B have additive effects),
and synergism (A and B multiply each others effects).
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Hazardous & Toxic Chemicals

1. Ignitability
2. Corrosiveness
3. Reactivity
4. Toxicity

First three characteristics produces acute

effects likely to cause almost immediate
damage. The fourth creates chronic effects
most likely to appear over a longer time
period.
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Ignitability, which identifies wastes that pose a fire

hazard during routine management. Fires not only
present immediate dangers of heat and smoke but also
can spread harmful particles over wide areas.
Corrosiveness, which identifies wastes requiring
special containers because of their ability to corrode
standard materials, or requiring segregation from
other wastes because of their ability to dissolve toxic
contaminants.

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Reactivity (or explosiveness), which identifies

wastes that, during routine management, tend
to react spontaneously, to react vigorously
with air or water, to be unstable to shock or
heat, to generate toxic gases, or to explode.
Toxicity, which identifies wastes that, when
improperly managed, may release toxicants in
sufficient quantities to pose a substantial
hazard to human health or the environment.
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Physically destructive1.
2.
3.

Ignitable materials are easily ignited and burn rapidly.

Examples: gasoline, paints, solvents.
Corrosive materials are highly acidic or alkaline. Examples:
drain and oven cleaners, chlorine.
Reactive materials are very active chemicals that easily cause
explosions and/or release harmful fumes. Examples:
ammonia, chlorine, gasoline.

Biologically destructive1.

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Toxic materials are harmful or fatal when consumed by

organisms in relatively small amounts. Example: Many
manufactured chemicals, pesticides, etc.

What is Hazardous ?

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Measurement of
Pollution

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Measurement of Pollution
A persistent problem1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Low concentration
Synergistic effects
Point to point variation
Variation with time
Secondary pollutants

Fractional Concentrations
Symbol

Definition

ppm

Parts per million

10-6

pphm

Parts per hundred

million

10-8

ppb

Parts per billion

10-9

ppt

Parts per trillion

10-12

1 ppm 1 gram salt/tonne sugar

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Fraction

 1 ppm phenol in water : lethal to some species of fish

0.2 ppm SO2 in air

: increase in human mortality rate

0.02 ppm peroxybenzoyl: severe eye irritation in humans

nitrate in smog
O
C
0.001 ppm HF in air
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NO2

: injury to certain sensitive plants

Extent of Pollution

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Extent of Pollution: Controlling

Factors
Level of Production
Usage Pattern
Persistence
Toxicity
Biological Concentration

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Abatement/Control of Pollution
Abate:

Stresses the idea of progressive

diminishing
Abatement: Derived from the word abate, means
i) to reduce in degree or intensity, ii) to put an
end to
Control: Skill in the use of a tool, instrument,
technique, or artistic medium
To exercise restraining or directing influence over
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Options for Control of Pollution

Elimination of the source
Elimination of the waste
Treatment of the waste to reduce deleterious

load on the environment

Augmentation of the environmental capacity to
assimilation the waste
- Feed modification
Equipment modification
Process modification (wasteless processing)

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Waste Generation During Mineral Exploitation

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IT-BHU

1856
1895
1957-1990

First human-made industrial dye

First bladder cancer case associated with
artificial dye
ACS recorded 10 million new chemicals

Currently ACS records 70 new chemicals every hour.

Only about 500 of the new chemicals invented every year reach a wide
market.
More than 70,000 chemicals are in everyday use worldwide and USA
alone produces over 100 million tons (91 million metric tonnes) of
SOCs per year.
Less than 1% of these have been completely evaluated as potential
health or ecological hazards.
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 Quantity:
5 million chemicals
5300 are commercially important
Toxicity:
Chemical
Methanol
PCB

Order of Production
9th
1st
No rank

Persistence:
Half life > 12 months

Biomagnifiable:
Carbon compounds are lipophilic
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Toxicity
2nd

Bioaccumulation/Bio-magnification:
Bioaccumulation of Ca137 , a fission product,
increases in the following order: Lichens < Reindeer
< Humans (Laps, Eskimos- Body burden is 10 times
greater than the people of temperate climates )
Cases of cancer after 15 to 20 years of exposure
Induction of birth defects- Mutation, Teratogenesis

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Water Pollution and Water

Scarcity
Effect of Population

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Stream Water Quality Requirements

Stream water quality requirements are
controlled by Stream Ecology: Toxicology, Solids,
Oxygen Balance, Eutrophication
Beneficial Uses: Extractive uses, In Situ
Uses

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Urbanization
World
1952 AD

29%

1975 AD

39%

2000 AD

50%

India
2000 AD

33%
1975

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2000 (in Lakh)

( 1 million)

Kolkatta

85

129

Delhi

72

167

Chennai

78

117

Mumbai

93

170

A computer-enhanced image of pollution in the Mediterranean

Sea. Red, yellow, and orange areas are concentrations of
plankton growth promoted by discharge of raw sewage. (Blue
indicates water). Many coastal cities lack sewage treatment.

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Population Growth
Birth
Death
Net Growth

3,50,000 per day

1,50,000 per day
2,00,000 per day
13 lakhs per week (approx)
8 crores per year (approx)

Trends of Urbanization
Year
1920
1960
2000
2050

Urban Population
12% of total
25% of total
45% of total
?

Requirement/Waste Production
(Community of 10 lakh people)
Water

565 tonnes
Food
1800 tonnes
Fuel
8600 tonnes
Sewage 450 tonnes(110 tonnes solids)
Refuse 1800 tonnes
Air pollutants 860 tonnes

Growing Population

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Growing Population

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Growing Population

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Growing Population

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Water Available is Finite

Population growth is causing stiff competition
People per flow unit (106m3/year)
Central Europe
Japan
Eastern USA
South West USA
Poland

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100
600

Taiwan

1000

Israel
Jordan
etc.

2000

Population growth

Factors Responsible for Increasing Water

Scarcity
Reducing Discharge in Rivers
Increasing Pollution of Fresh Water Bodies
Receding Ground Water Strata
Rising TDS Level
Rising F and As Levels

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Factors Responsible for Increasing Water Scarcity

Lack of Awareness and Appreciation of the Problem at
Administrative Levels
Typical Mindset and Lack of Scientific Temper
Poor Infrastructure at Local Level ( Financial, Technical)
Unconcerned Politicians and Bureaucracy
Lack of Political Will
Misguided Priorities at State and Central Levels
Lack of Awareness at the Grass-root Level
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AGRICULTURE
Nitrogenous fertilizers

Permissible level 45 ppm/ NO3

Haemoglobin Methaemoglobin
Fe(II)
Fe(III)
takes O2
cannot take O2
Methaemoglobinaemia in infants (blue baby disease)
Gastro-intestinal part of adult humans and animals more favourable
to NO3 reduction
Amino acids + NO2 Nitrosamine (Carcinogenic)
Pesticides

Persitent half life > 12 months

Biomagnification
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Nitrate Level in Ground Water

State

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Nitrate in ppm

Bihar

21.0

Gujarat

55.1

Hills

9.0

Haryana

99.5

Maharashtra

52.0

M.P.

50.0

U.P.

23.0 37.0

ISI/WHO

45

Particulate
organic-P

Soluble
organic-P

Soluble orthophosphate,
PO4

Inorganic-P
in sediments

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Eutrophication

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Eutrophication
Greek Words:
Oligo
Few
Trophien To nourish
Oligotrophic
Few nutrients
MesoIntermediate
Eu Well
Eutrophic Highly productive
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Persistence of Pesticides in Soil

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Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT)

H
C

Cl
Cl

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C
Cl

Cl
Cl

PRODUCITON OF PESTICIDES IN INDIA

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Number of insect species resistant to pesticides:

1935
7
1955
50
1975
330
1981
462
Cost of development of new pesticides:
1935
1956
1.2 m.$
1969
4.1
1977
20.0
1984
45.0
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Industrial Pollution

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COAL MAP OF INDIA

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MAJOR THERMAL POWER STATIONS

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AREAS OF HIGH SELENIUM HAZARD

AREAS OF LOW SELENIUM HAZARD

HAZARDOUS REGIONS FOR SELENIUM IN INDIA

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IT-BHU

Sulfur dioxide emissions and acid precipitation from the

International Nickel Company copper smelter (background) killed
all vegetation over a large area near Sudbury, Ontario (USA).
Even the pink granite bedrock has burned black. The installation
of scrubbers has dramatically reduced sulfur emissions. The
ecosystem farther away from the smelter is slowly beginning to
recover.

Pollution occurs when natural purification processes

are overwhelmed, such as by large amounts of nutrients
or poisons. Shown here is acid mine damage.
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Transport of Pollutants

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Receptors

Water
Pollution
Sources

WATER
ENVIRONMENT
Effluents

Water
exposure

HYDROLOGY

Effluents
(mass/time)

Effluents
Standards

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Water
quality
models
Concentration
(mass/volume of
water over some
average time)

Water
Quality
Standards

Environmental
stress
quantitation
Exposure (to
receiving water
concentration
over a period of
time)

Ingestion,
Contact
Aesthetics, Materials

Air
Pollution
Sources

Receptors
Meteorology

Sun light

AIR
ENVIRONMENT

Air
exposure

Emissions

Emissions
(mass/time)

Emission
Standards

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Air
quality
models
Concentration
(mass/volume of
air over some
average time)

Air Quality
Standards

Environmental
stress
quantitation
Exposure (to
receiving water
concentration
over a period of
time)

Inhalation,
Contact
Materials, Aesthetics

DIRECT RADIATION
DEPOSITION

PERSISTENT
POLLUTANTS

AIR

DEPOSITION

INHALATION

CROPS AND
PLANTS

SOIL

ANIMALS

INGESTION

DIRECT
RADIATION

MAN

INGESTION

INHALATION
DIRECT RADIATION

PERSISTENT
POLLUTANTS

SURFACE OR
GROUND
WATER

AQUATIC
PLANTS

INGESTION

AQUATIC
ANIMALS

INGESTION

LAND
PLANTS

INGESTION

LAND
ANIMALS

INGESTION

MAN

SOIL

INGESTION

Possible Routes of Uptake of Persistent Pollutants

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Toxic Substances

Ingest

Blood cells

Feces
Urine
Secretion
Exhaled Air

Inhale

Skin

Absorption

Distribution & Metabolism

Excretion

Fat
Tissue
Organs

Storage

ADMSE (Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Storage and

Excretion) of Toxic Substances through the Body
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Effects of Air/Water
Pollutants

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Effects of Pollution:
Physical
Chemical
Biological

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Effects
Physical Green house effect due to carbon dioxide, and other
gases. Loss of visibility due to particulates
Chemical Acid rain, Photochemical Smog, Loss of ozone layer
Biological Health hazard to humans, Loss of leaves, Plague of
marble
SO2 Affects mucus membrane, causes coughing, irritation of
respiratory tract.
NOx NO2 affects lungs, causes irritation, affects respiratory
tract
Global effects on climate and / or local / regional effects due to
toxicity of air pollutants.
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Effects on Materials
Corrosion, deterioration of building materials

Effects on Vegetation:
Leaf injury, growth retardation
Complex changes in plant ecosystem
Algal bloom, eutrophication

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Effects on Animals and Humans:

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Eye and respiratory irritation, fluorosis

Large scale death, reduced reproduction
Carcinogenic
Mutagenic
Teratogenic

Global Effects:
Green-house effect, ozone hole, changes in
biogeochemical cycles

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Effects of Wastewaters on Receiving Systems

Receiving System

Effects

Natural Water Bodies

O 2 depletion, danger to health and

safety, damage to aquatic life, economic losses, recreational losses

Municipal Sewerage System
Explosion, toxic gas hazard, corrosion
of sewer, deposition, decrease in
treatment efficiency due to
over-load,
biological toxicity
Ground Water Strata
Contamination of potable water
supplies by
brine, metals, etc.
Land
Seepage to ground or surface waters,
damage to
vegetation

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Air Pollution: Role of Climate

(a) Normal pattern

(b) Thermal inversion

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Temperature profiles: (a) During normal conditions, air temperature decreases

with altitude; thus pollutants ascend and mix with atmospheric gases. (b) In a
temperature inversion, however, warm air forms a lid over cooler air, thus
trapping air pollution.

Effects on Materials

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Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials

Particulates - Soot, dust, and fumes soil painted surfaces, buildings, and fabrics
Abrasion, in presence of moisture and sulphur dioxide accelerate
corrosion of steel, copper, zinc and other metals.
Sulphur dioxide Corrosion of steel (0.02 ppm or 52 m/m3), at 0.09 1 ppm
affects fabrics, leather, paint, paper, Marble and limestone.
Ozone at 0.01 0.02 ppm (2.40 m/m3) cracking of synthetic rubber, affects
fabrics (cotton, acetate, nylon and polyester)
Oxides of Nitrogen At 0.6 2 ppm , over 2 3 months, fading of acetate, rayon
and cotton fabrics.
In presence of moisture and particulates attack nickel alloys and
brass.
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Damage Due to Acid Deposition : Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4), which is

a major component of acid deposition, reacts with limestone
(CaCO3) to form gypsum (CaSO4). Since gypsom is water soluble,
it washes away with rain. The damage to this monument is the
result of such acid reacting with the stone.

Effects on Vegetation

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Effects of Air Pollution on Vegetation

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Pollutant

Level (ppm) and

Exposure Period

Effect

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Sulphur dioxide
0.3 0.5, several days
Bleached spots, chlorosis, chronic injury to spinach
and other leafy vegetables
Oxides of nitrogen
0.25, 8 months
Increased abscission and reduced yield in citrus
plants
0.5 10.0, 2 days Suppressed growth of tomato
3 5, 21 hours
Spots of mild necrosis on cotton and bean plants
25, 1 hour
Acute leaf injury
Ozone
0.03, 8 hour
Fleck on upper surface, necrosis and bleaching
Fluoride
0.001, 7 21 days
Necrosis of leaf tip, grape is particularly susceptible
Ethylene
0.1, several hours &
Epinasty, leaf abscission, flower dropping
0.05,
several days
Photochemical smog
0.01 0.05, a few hours Glazing or bronzing of leaf underside, damage to
(PAN)
sensitive plants, young leaves more susceptible
______________________________________________________________________________________________

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Forest Decline : Many forests at high elevations in

northeastern North America have shown significant
decline, and dead trees are common.
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IT-BHU

Sulfur dioxide emissions and acid precipitation from the

International Nickel Company copper smelter (background)
killed all vegetation over a large area near Sudbury, Ontario
(USA). Even the pink granite bedrock has burned black. The
installation of scrubbers has dramatically reduced sulfur
emissions. The ecosystem farther away from the smelter is
slowly beginning to recover.

Health Effects of Pollutants

(Animals and Humans)

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Health Effect of Air Pollution

Air pollutants have a variety of health effect,

ranging from immediate to delayed and from

slight irritation to potentially life threatening
conditions.

Air pollutants course many immediate effects

such as shortness of breath, eye irritation. Few

people are aware of the sources of these
problems. In extreme cases, pollutants can
become lethal.

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Long-term exposure to our pollutants may

result in a number of diseases, including
bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and lung
cancer.
Three groups are generally most
susceptible to air pollution, the young, the
old,
and
the
infirm
(sick).

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IT-BHU

A Polish mother gives an oxygen treatment to her child who

suffers from air pollution-related respiratory disease. In some
parts of Eastern Europe and the former USSR, up to 90
percent of all children suffer from environmentally-linked
diseases.

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Smoky cooking and heating fires may cause more ill health effects
than any other source of indoor air pollution except tobacco
smoking. Some 2.5 billion people, mainly women and children,
spend hours each day in poorly ventilated kitchens and living
spaces where carbon monoxide, particulates, and cancer-causing
hydrocarbons often reach dangerous levels.

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Health effects of some typical fission products

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Radioisotope

Half-life

Environmental Effect

Cesium-137

30 years

Accumulates in soft
tissues, affects whole
body

Iodine-131

8 days

Accumulates in
thyroid

Krypton-85

10.4 years

Chemically inert

Strontium90

25 years

Accumulates in bones,
may cause leukemia

ICRP TOLERANCE DOSE

YEARLY BACKGROUND DOSE

(AVERAGE, SEA LEVEL)

PROTOZOA
ALGAE
MOLLUSCS
C R U S TAC EAN S
FISH
MAN

10-1

10

102

103

104

105

106

107

DOSE (RADS.)

RELATIVE TOLERANCE OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF ORGANISMS TO

RADIATION (DOSE REQUIRED TO KILL 50% OF INDIVIDUAL IN A
SHORT TIME).

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Toxic chemicals causing the greatest risk to human health

Benzene

Methyl ethyl ketone

Cadmium

Methyl isobutyl ketone

Carbon tetrachloride

Nickel

Chloroform

Tetrachloroethylene

Chromium

Toluene

Cyanides

Trichloroethane

Dichloromethane

Trichloroethylene

Lead

Xylene(s)

Mercury
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Effects of Hazardous and

Toxic Wastes

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Hazardous & Toxic Wastes: Health Effects

Irritants
Corrosiveness, caustics and other substances that
damage biological tissues on contact.
Nitric acid, sulphuric acid, ammonia, sodium
hydroxide, toxic metal (e.g. Be or Ni) fumes, ozone,
chlorine, oxides of nitrogen or sulphur, formaldehyde,
benzene hexachloride, dioxin, etc. Skin diseases
caused by irritants (dermetoses) is the most common
occupational diseases.
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Respiratory Fibrotic Agents

Special class of irritants that damage the lungs,
causing scar tissue formation that lowers
respiratory capacity. This group includes both
chemical reagents and particulate matter.
Silica dust Silicosis
Coal dust Black lung (Miners disease)
Cotton fibres Brown lung
Asbestos fibres Asbestosis
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Particulate Size and Respiratory Defense

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Particle size, m

Description

Mechanism

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Greater than 10

Coarse dust, flyash

(visible to the naked eye)

2 10

Fumes, dust, smoke

Movement of cilia sweeps mucus
upwar carrying particles from wind pipe
to mouth where they can be swallowed.

Less than 2 Aerosols, fumes

Hairs at the front of the nose

Lymphocytes and phagocytes in lungs

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Aeroallergenes Substances like lead accumulate in blood, nervous and renal systems and cause
weakness, headache, lassitude, constipation, blue-line along gums.

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Health Effects of Particulate Matter

Particulate matter of particle size 0.01 to 100 m is the potential health hazard.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Conc.,
Accompanied by
Exposure Time
Effect
m/cu m
_________________________________________________________________________________________
750
715 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Increased illness
300
630 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Worsening of chronic bronchitis
200
250 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Increased absence if industrial workers
100-130
120 m SO2/ cu m
Annual mean
Respiratory disease in children
100
30 mg SO2/ cu m/month Annual geom. mean
Increased death for those beyond 50 years
80-100
30 mg SO2/ cu m/month 2 year geom. mean Increased death for those beyond 50-70years
_________________________________________________________________________________________

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Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide at Various Levels in Blood

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Level, %

Effect

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Less than 1
1.0 2.0
2.0 5.0
5.0 16.0
16.0 20.0
20.0 30.0
30.0 40.0
40.0 50.0
50.0 60.0
60.0 80.0

No apparent effect
Change in behavioral performance
Effects on central nervous system impairment of time interval discriminations,
visual acuity, brightness discrimination, other psychomotor functions
Damage to cardiac and pulmonary functions
Fatigue
Nausea, Headache
Severe headache, Nausea and Vomiting, Dizziness
Slurring of speech, Coma
Convulsions, Coma
Respiratory failure, Death

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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Health Effects of Sulphur Dioxide

It affects mucus membrane, causes coughing and irritation of respiratory tract. It also affects plants by
causing leaf injury. Buildings also get affected.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Concentration, ppm
Exposure time
Effects
_____________________________________________________________________________
0.06
No effect
0.15 0.25
1 4 days
Cardio-respiratory response
1.0 2.0
3 10 months
Cardio-respiratory response
2.0 5.0
Tightness in chest
5.0
1 hour
Severe distress, nose-bleeding
Greater than 20
Eye irritation, digestive tract damage
400 500
Dangerous
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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Health Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen

Out of all the oxides of nitrogen NO is less toxic. Nitrogen dioxide causes irritation in respiratory tract
and affects lungs.
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Concentration, ppm

Exposure

Effect

___________________________________________________________________________________________

0.061 0.1
2 3 years
Increase in acute respiratory disease
Upto 0.1
6 months
Increase in acute bronchitis in school children
0.12
<24 hours
Human olfactory threshold
5
10 min
Increase in air way resistance
90
30 min
Pulmonary edema
_____________________________________________________________________________

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Health Effects of Ozone and Photochemical Smog

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Concentration, ppm

Exposure

Effect

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Ozone
0.1 1.0
1.0 3.0
>2.0
9.0

1 hour
2 hours
2 hours
-

Increased air way resistance

Fatigue, lack of coordination
Severe cough
Pulmonary edema

Total Oxidants
0.1
0.05 0.06
0.03 0.3

Instantaneous
1 hour
1 hour

Eye irritation
Aggravation of asthma
Impaired performance of athletes

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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Cancer
Cancer rates have been rising in most industrialized
countries, and cancer is now the second leading killer in
USA, killing about 500,000 people annually. According to
American Cancer Society, 1 in 2 males and 1 in 3 females
in USA will have some form of cancer in their lifetime.

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Estimated Causes of Cancer Deaths

Factor

Percentage of Total Cancer Deaths

Tobacco

30

Alcohol

Diet

35

Reproductive and sexual behavior

Occupation

Food additives

<1

Pollution

Industrial products

<1

Sunlight, ultraviolet light, other radiation

Medicines, medical procedures

Infections or inherited factors

13

TOTAL

100

(Source: Data from R.Doll and R.Peto, Avoidable Risks of Cancer in the U.S., Journal of the
National Cancer Institute 66 [1981]: 1191-1308)
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Carcinogens
Substances that cause cancer- invasive, out of
control cell growth that result in malignant tumors.
Some experts blame synthetic chemicals in our
food and environment for this problem. Where as
some put the blame on lifestyle (smoking,
sunbathing, alcohol).

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Cigarette smoking is one of the most hazardous indoor air pollutants.

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Common Carcinogenic Chemicals

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Benzene
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Trichloroethylene
Chromium (VI) oxide
Chromates and dichromates
Benzidine
Sec-butyl bromide (2-bromobutane)
Tert-butyl bromide (2-bromo-2-methylpropane)
Diazomethane
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Hydrazine
Isobutyl bromide (1-bromo-1-methylpropane)
Methyl iodide (iodomethane)
Naphthylamine (1-aminonapthalene)
Naphthylamine (2-aminonapthalene)
Semicarbazide hydrochloride
1, 1, 2-trichloroethane
Urethane (Ethyl carbamate)
Vinyl chloride

Most Common Non-Carcinogenic Solvents

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Acetic Acid
Acetic anhydride
Acetonitrile

Formic acid
Hexane
Methylene chloride
(Dichloromethane)

Acetone
Alcohols
Diethylether (Ether)
Dymethylformamide
Dimethyl sulfoxide
Esters
Ethylene glycol

Petroleum ether
Pyridine
Tetrahydrofuran
Toluene
Water
Xylenes

Chronic Health Effects

Chromic bronchitis a persistent inflammation of the

bronchial tubes, which carry air into lungs. Symptomspersistent cough, mucus buildup, and difficulty in
breathing.

Cause -

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Cigarette smoking (active and passive)

Urban air pollutants (SO2 , NO2 , O3, are the

causative agents)

Emphysema

Continued exposure to air pollutants through breathing

affects oxygenation capacity of lungs. When such people
become older, the small air sacs, or alveoli, in their lungs
break down. This reduces the surface area for the exchange
of oxygen with blood. Breathing becomes more and more
labored. When surface area is reduced by 40% victims
suffer shortness of breath even when exercising lightly.

Cause -

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Cigarette smoking (80% cases)

Urban air pollutants

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Urban air pollution and emphysema: Incidence of emphysema in

Winnipeg and St. Louis. Note the increased incidence of
emphysema in all three age groups in the more polluted urban
environment of St. Louis.

Bronchial Asthma
A chromic disorder, marked by periodic episodes of wheezing and

difficulty breathing.

Caused by allergic reaction to common stimulants such as dust,

pollen, and skin cells (dander) from pets. In some individuals

pollution may trigger asthma attacks.

During such attacks passage way that carry air to the lungs

(bronchi and bronchioles) fill with mucus, making breathing

difficult. Irritants also stimulate the contraction of smooth muscle
cells in the walls of the smallest air carrying ducts, the bronchioles,
making it even more difficult to breathe.

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Asphyxiants
Chemicals that exclude oxygen or interfere with the oxygen
uptake and distribution. These are of two types- passive and
active.
Passive Asphyxiants Nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide.
These are inert, exclude oxygen by filling enclosed spaces
like- mines, unused wells, caves, farm soils.
Active Asphyxiants Carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide, aniline. These are active and react with
blood or lung tissue to prevent oxygen uptake. These are toxic
even in low concentrations and their effects are irreversible.

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Sensitizers or Allergens
These activate the immune system. Some act as direct antigens and some
after binding to another molecule and changing their structure or chemistry.
Formaldehyde is a good example. It is both directly and indirectly
allergenic. People exposed to formaldehyde in plastics, wood products,
glue, insulation, fabrics, etc. become hypersensitive to formaldehyde and
several other materials. This is called sick house syndrome.

Immune System Depressants

These suppress the immune system. PCBs and several other substances
come under this category. Exact mechanism of their action is not known,
probably they disrupt the endocrine hormone function and make the host
susceptible to a variety of infections.

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Neurotoxins
These are special metabolic poisons, that specifically attack
nerve cells (neurons).
Heavy metals Hg, Pb, kill nerve cells and cause permanent
neurological damage.
Anesthetics Ether, chloroform, halothane, etc., and
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt cell
membranes necessary for nerve action.
Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion), and carbamates
(carbaryl, zeneb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, an
enzyme that regulates signal transmission between nerve cells
and the tissues and organs they innervate.
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Mutagens
These are chemicals and radiation that damage
genetic material (DNA) in cells. This can lead to birth
defects if the damage occurs during embryonic or
fetal growth. Later in life, genetic damage may
trigger neopalstic (tumor) growth. When damage
occurs in reproductive cells, the defect can be passed
on to future generations. Cells have repair mechanism
to detect and repair damaged genetic material, but
some changes may be hidden, and the repair process
itself can be flawed. There is no threshold for
exposure to mutagens. Any exposure has some
possibilities of causing damage.
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Teratogens
These are chemicals or other factors that specially
cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and
development. Some compounds that are not
otherwise harmful may cause tragic problems in these
sensitive stages of life.
Thalidomide caused birth defects and fetal alcohol
syndrome are typical examples teratogenic problems.

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Infant development occurs over three periods: pre-embryonic,

embryonic and fetal. Each bar indicates when an organ
system develops. The yellow portions indicate periods most
sensitive to agents that can cause major birth defects.

Effects of Acid Deposition on Organisms: The low pH of the water in

which this fish lived caused the abnormal bone development that ultimately
resulted in the death of the fish.

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A mother from Minamata, Japan, bathes her daughter, who suffered

permanent brain damage and birth defects from mercury-contaminated
seafood the mother ate while pregnant. This kind of poisoning is now
known as Minamata Disease.

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The deformed beak of this young robin is thought to be due to dioxins,

DDT, and other toxins in its mother's diet.

Thalidomide
Thalidomide (marketed under trade name Cantergan) was
the most popular sleeping pill in Europe during 1970s. It
seemed to have no unwanted effect and was sold without
prescription. When used by pregnant women, however, it
caused abnormal fetal development resulting in
phecomelia (seal-like-limbs), in which there is a hand or
foot but no arm or leg. There is evidence that taking a
single pill of thalidomide during the first week of
pregnancy is sufficient to cause tragic birth defects.
Altogether at least 12,000 children were affected before
this drug was withdrawn from the market.

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Thalidomide is effective in treating leprosy. It is being tried

for treating cancer, AIDS, retinal degeneration, and tissue
rejection in organ transplant.

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Development of this babys arms and legs was blocked when its mother took the
sedative thalidomide early in her pregnancy. Although the drug has been banned in
Europe and North America for the past twenty years, it is still used to treat leprosy in
some tropical countries. Unfortunately, some of this potent teratogen is used by
pregnant women who are unaware of its tragic side effects.

A colt born in Ukraine after the Chernobyl accident has deformed legs and
even extra legs and hooves.
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Acknowledgement
To all authors whose work has been

freely used to compile the information

contained in slides.

To my colleagues and students who

provided
critical
improvement

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suggestions

for

Thanks..