WLL (NSS)

1) History Of Mobile
Communication
2) Cellular Network
Concepts
3) CDMA Principles
Haroon Karim

Historyof

MobileCommunicationsSystem

AMPS:
AMPS:Advanced
AdvancedMobile
MobilePhone
PhoneSystem
System
TACS:
TACS:Total
TotalAccess
AccessCommunication
CommunicationSystem
System
GPRS:
GPRS:General
GeneralPacket
PacketRadio
RadioServices
Services
01/20/17

Single Cell Network

01/20/17

History of Cellular Networks

Why cellular networks?

To address requirement for greater capacity

For efficient use of frequency

To address the poor quality of non cellular mobile

networks and increases coverage
replaces a large transmitter with smaller ones in cells
smaller transmitting power
each cell serves a small geographical service area
each cell is assigned a portion of the total frequency
01/20/17

Replacement of huge single cell by a

number of small cells

01/20/17

Why Hexagonal Cell Structure

No proper coverage of the area with

theoretical circles.

Polygon near to the circle

Hexagon is selected for further technical

simplicity.

01/20/17

Description of a Cell

Approximated to be a hexagonal coverage

best approximation of a circular area

Served by a base station

low powered transceiver
antenna system and it
may be divided into 6 equilateral triangles
R

length of base of each triangle = 0.5R (radius)

3R

different groups of channels assigned to base stations 0.87 R

2

01/20/17

Mathematical Description of a Cell

Area of a cell is:

Area cell

R
R 3 3R 2
6x
3x
2.598 R 2
2
2
2

Perimeter of a cell = 6R

01/20/17

Types of Mobile Communication Cells

The size of a cell is dictated by capacity demand

Macro-cell
large, covering a wide area
range of several hundred kilometers (km) to ten km
mostly deployed in rural areas

Micro-cell
medium cell, coverage area smaller than in macro cells
range of several hundred meters to a couple of meters
deployed mostly in crowded areas, stadiums, shopping malls

01/20/17

Types of Mobile Communication Cells

Contd.

The size of a cell is dictated by capacity demand

Pico-cell
small, covering a very small area
range of several tens of meters
low power antennas
can be mounted on walls or ceilings
used in densely populated areas, offices, lifts, tunnels etc

Mega-cell
-- These cells are formed by LEO and MEO

01/20/17

10

01/20/17

11

Cell Clusters

Service areas are normally divided into clusters of

cells to facilitate system design and increased
capacity

Definition

a group of cells in which each cell is assigned a

different frequency
cell clusters may contain any number of cells, but clusters
of 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 cells are very popular in practice

01/20/17

12

Cell Clusters

A cluster of 7 cells

2
3

7
1
6

4
5

the pattern of cluster is repeated throughout the

network

channels are reused within clusters

cell clusters are used in frequency planning for the

network

Coverage area of cluster called a footprint

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13

Cell Clusters (1)

A network of cell clusters in a densely populated Town

2
3

7
3

4
2

3
1

2
3

7
1

4
5

4
5

14

4
2

7
1

01/20/17

Representation Of Cells Through BS

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15

Capacity Computations

Assume there are N cells, each allocated k different

frequency channels. These N cells are said to form a
cluster. Total number of channels per cluster is given
by
S=kN

Total capacity associated with M clusters:

C=MkN=MS

A cluster may be replicated more times in a given

area if the cells are made smaller.

Capacity of cellular system is directly proportional to

M, number of times a cluster is replicated.

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16

Capacity versus interference for same size cell

and power transmission

Decrease N for More Capacity:

If Cluster Size, N is decreased while cell size
remains fixed, more clusters are required to cover
the area (M increases i-e no of clusters increases).
Therefore, Capacity increases.
Increase N for Less Interference:
On the other hand, if N is increased (large cluster
size) means that co-channels are now farther than
before, and hence we will have less interference.
Value of N is a function of how much interference a
mobile or a base station can tolerate.
We should select a smallest possible value of N but
keeping S/I in the required limits.

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17

Means of Increasing System Capacity

There are several approaches for increasing

cellular system capacity including:

Cell clustering

Sectoring of cells

Cell splitting

Frequency reuse

Reduction of adjacent cell interference and co-channel

interference

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18

Frequency Plan

Intelligent allocation of frequencies used

Each base station is allocated a group of channels to be
used within its geographical area of coverage called a
cell

Adjacent cell base stations are assigned completely

different channel groups to their neighbors.

base stations antennas designed to provide just the

cell coverage, so frequency reuse is possible

01/20/17

19

Frequency Reuse Concept

Assign to each cluster a group of radio channels to be

used within its geographical footprint

ensure this group of frequencies is completely different from

that assigned to neighbors of the cells

Therefore this group of frequencies can be reused in

a cell cluster far away from this one

Cells with the same number have the same sets of

frequencies
01/20/17

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Frequency Reuse Factor

Definition

When each cell in a cluster of N cells uses one of N

frequencies, the frequency reuse factor is 1/N

frequency reuse limits adjacent cell interference

because cells using same frequencies are separated
far from each other

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Factors Affecting Frequency Reuse

Factors affecting frequency reuse include:

Types of antenna used

--omni-directional or sectored

placement of base stations

-- Center excited or edge excited.

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Excitation of Cells

Once a frequency reuse plan is agreed upon overlay the

frequency reuse plan on the coverage map and assign
frequencies

The location of the base station within the cell is referred

to as cell excitation

In hexagonal cells, base stations transmitters are either:

centre-excited, base station is at the centre of the cell or
edge-excited, base station at 3 of the 6 cell vertices

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23

Finding the Nearest Co-Channel

After selecting smallest possible value of N we should see that N should
follow the following eq. N= i2 +j2 +ij
(1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons
(2) Turn 600 counter-clockwise and move j cells, to reach the next cell
using same frequency sets

this distance D is required for a given frequency reuse to provide enough

reduced same channel interference

ie, after every distance D we could reuse a set of frequencies in a new cell

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24

Freq Reuse ( N=7 , i=2 j=1)

B
G

C
A

F
B
G

E
C

A
F

C
A

D
E

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Freq Reuse ( N=19 , i=3 j=2)

01/20/17

26

How frequency Reuse Increases

Capacity
Example: A GSM communication system uses a frequency reuse
factor of 1/7 and 416 channels available. If 21 channels are
allocated as control channels, compute its system capacity.
Assume a channel supports 20 users

Channels available for allocation = 416 - 21 = 395

Number of channels assigned to each cells = 395 / 7 =56.428= 57
Number of simultaneous users per cell = 20 x 57 = 1140
Number of cell per cluster =7
Number of simultaneous users in system = 7 x 1140 = 7980

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Channel Allocation Techniques

Targets to achieve through the different

channel allocation techniques.

To satisfy the user, a channel needs to be available on

request.
Reasonable probability of call blockage (GOS) is 2%.
GOS fluctuate with location and time. The goal is to keep
a uniform GOS across the system.

Three types of algorithms for channel allocation:

Fixed channel allocation (FCA)
Channel Borrowing
Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)
01/20/17

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Fixed Channel Allocation Techniques

Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of channels.

If all channels are occupied, the call is blocked.
To minimize interference, assign adjacent channels to
different cells.
Available spectrum is W Hz and each channel is B Hz.
Total number of channels: Nc = W/B
For a cluster size N, the number of channels per cell:
Cc = Nc/N

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29

Channel Borrowing
If all channels of a cell are occupied.
Borrow frequencies from low traffic cells to high traffic
cells.
Temporary channel borrowing: channel is returned after
call is completed.
MSC supervises such borrowing procedure.
B
C
G

G
A

D
F

F
E

B
C

C
G

A
01/20/17

G
A

30

Dynamic Channel Allocation

Channels are not allocated to different cells permanently
All channels are placed in a pool, and are assigned to new
calls according to the reuse pattern. Signal is returned to
the pool, when call is completed.
Each time a call request is made, serving base station
requests a channel from MSC.
Issues related to channel allocation are still under
research.

01/20/17

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Comparison of Channel Allocation Techniques

Fixed Channel Allocation

Advantages:
--- Less load on MSC
--- Simple
Disadvantages:
Blocking may happen

Dynamic Channel Allocation

Advantages:
Reduce the probability of blocking.
Resources are shared on need-basis
Increase trunking capacity of the system
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32

Comparison of Channel Allocation

Techniques

Disadvantages:
--- Requires MSC for processing
---burden on MSC
--- May be very complicated

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33

Handoff

Do we need hand off in old mobile telephony

and why.

No because of single huge cell covering the whole service

area.

What is handoff.

When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is

in progress,the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new
channel belonging to the new base station

What are important considerations to design a

handoff process.

Handoff must be performed successfully.

2) Handoff must occur infrequently.
3) Handoff should be smooth and the users must not be able to
detect it.
1)

01/20/17

34

Handoff

Contd.

Arrangements to fulfill the requirements of a

successful handoff.

Handoff must be given priority over call initiation

request .
Minimum usable signal for voice quality at the base
station receiver is normally from 90 dbm to 100
dbm.
Optimum signal level at which to initiate a handoff
should be taken in such a way that should not be too
large or too small. Where
= Pr(handoff) Pr(Min.usable)

If is too large----- more handoffs-----Burden on MSC

If is too small ----- more call drops.

01/20/17

35

Handoff

Contd.

When to handoff.

Signal level drop is not due to momentary fading

and mobile is actually moving away from the BS.
For this the BS monitors the signal level for a certain
period of time before a handoff is initiated.This
period of time varies with the speed of MS.
Perfect relationship is required between speed of
signal drop and required handoff time.

01/20/17

36

Handoff

Contd.

Who detects the need for handoff.

1)

Network Initiated Handoff:

Signal measurements by BS & supervised by MSC.

BS monitors its all RVCs to determine the relative location
of each mobile user with respect to the BS.
Mostly implemented in 1G systems.
This type of handoff takes almost 10 sec as in AMPS.
Two separate receivers on BS

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

01/20/17

One is used to measure RSSI(Radio Signal Strength Indication) of

calls in progress with in the cell.
Second is used to scan and determine signal strengths of mobile
users which are in neighboring cells.
Both the signals are monitored by the MSC which decides when to
handoff.

37

Handoff

Contd

Who detects the need for handoff.

2) Mobile Assisted Handoff( MAHO)

Every mobile station measures the received power from

surrounding base stations and continually reports the
results of these measurements to the serving base station.
A handoff is initiated when the power received from the
base station of a neighboring cell begins to exceed the
power received from the current base station (serving
base station) by a certain level or for a certain period of
time.
This handoff technique has been implemented in most of
the 2G systems.
This type of handoff takes almost 1- 2sec as in GSM.
Preferred for microcellular system

01/20/17

38

Handoff

Contd.

What are the types of handoff.

Hard Handoff:assign different radio

channels

Soft Handoff:No physical change in

assigned channels, a different base station
handles the task.
What are different levels of handoff.

(1) Intra Cell (2) Inter cell

system

01/20/17

39

(3) Inter

Priority To Handoff
There are two strategies to give a priority to
handoff.
(1) Guard Channel: 100% guaranty for
successful handoff but It will cause low
trunking efficiency.
(2) Queuing Of Handoff Request: There can be
unsuccessful handoffs due to long delay in
queue.
--Probability of forced termination due to lake
of available channels decreases at the cost of
reduced Total Carried Traffic.
-- Queuing is possible because of the time
available between the Threshold power level
and the Hand off power level.

01/20/17

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Practical Handoff Problems

(1)Problem Caused by high speed mobility:
More handoffs are required to handle high
speed mobility of MS during a call. It will cause
load on the system as well as call drops.
(2) Problem Caused by low speed mobility: Cell
dragging:

In the line of sight and smooth area signal does

not drop sharply for pedestrian users so user
goes on using the frequency of the previous
cell in to the new cell. This causes increase in
the co-channel interference.

01/20/17

41

Solution For More Handoffs

Umbrella Cell Approach:

Micro cells inside A macro cell.

---- Macro cell is defined by high power and
lengthy tower.
---- Micro cells are defined inside the
macro cell with less power and less height
towers.
---- High speed MS are handled
by macro cell and low speed subscribers are
handled by micro cells.
---- This strategy increases the no
of capacity channels per unit area and
decreases the no of handoffs.

01/20/17

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Umbrella Cell Approach

01/20/17

43

Solution For Cell Dragging

Handoff threshold
----and radio coverage
parameters must be adjusted carefully
according to the environment .

01/20/17

44

INTERFERENCE AND SYSTEM

CAPACITY

01/20/17

45

Interference
It is a major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio
systems. (In comparison with wired comm. Systems, the amount
and sources of interferences in Wireless Systems are greater.)
Creates bottleneck in increasing capacity
Sources of interference are:
1. Mobile Stations
2. Neighboring Cells
3. The same frequency cells 4. Non-cellular signals in the
same spectrum
Interference in Voice Channels: Cross-Talk
Urban areas usually have more interference, because of:
a)Greater RF Noise Floor,
b) More Number of Mobiles
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46

Major Types Of Interference

1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
3) Other services: like a competitor cellular service in the
same area

1) Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

The cells that use the same set of frequencies are called
co-channel cells.
The interference between signals from these cells is
called Co-Channel Interference (CCI).
Cannot be controlled by increasing RF power. Rather, this
will increase CCI.
Depends on minimum distance between co-channel
47
cells.
01/20/17

The yellow cells use the

same set of frequency
channels, and hence,
interfere with each other.
In case of N=7, there are
6 first-layer co-channels.

In constant cell size and RF power, CCI is a function of

Distance between the co-channel cells(D), and the size of
each cell (R).
Increasing ratio D/R, CCI decreases.
Define Co-Channel Reuse Ratio
= Q = D/R
48
01/20/17

Q
D
/R
3N

For hexagonal geometry, D/R can be calculated:

Smaller Q provides larger capacity, since that would

mean smaller N. (Capacity

1/N).

Larger Q improves quality, owing to less CCI.

for

N=3, Q=3,
N=7,

Q=4.58,

N=12, Q=6,
01/20/17

N=13, Q=6.24

49

Co-channel Interference
When

the transmitter power of each base station

is equal and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area
Then

we can express the SIR in terms of distance

C / I SIR =

R n
6

n
D
k
k 1

01/20/17

50

Co-channel Interference
where the denominator represents the users in
neighboring clusters using the same channel.
Let D k=D be the distance between cell centers. Then
( D / R)n ( 3N ) n
C/I

6
6

Note how C/I improves with the frequency reuse N.

Now, let us consider the worst case for a cluster size of
N= 7. The mobile is at the edge of the cell. Express C/I as
a function of actual distances.
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Worst Case Design

Worst case carrier-to-interference ratio
C
Rn

I 2( D R) n 2 D n 2( D R) n

D + R

D
D -R

D + R

Let n = 4 and D/R = q,

D -R
D

C
1

I 2(q 1) 4 2q 4 2(q 1) 4

Let reuse N = 7, then

q 3 7 4.6

Compute C/I and get C/I = 17.3 dB

For a system with omni-directional antenna, N =7 is not
sufficient. We need to increase N = 12
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 Increasing N from 7 to 12, brings C/I above the 18dB

level. However, the system capacity is decreased.
Reduction of capacity by 7/12 for taking care of the worst
case situation when CIR ~= 17.4 dB is not justified
because this situation will occur very rarely.
Conclusion: Co-Channel Interference controls the link
performance which then decides Frequency Reuse Plan,
and System Capacity.

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(2) Adjacent Channel Interference

Interference from channels that are adjacent in frequency,
The primary reason for that is Imperfect Receive Filters
which allow nearby frequencies to leak in to the pass
band.
Problem is severer if the user of adjacent channel is in
close proximity. Near-Far Effect
Near-Far Effect: The other transmitter(who may or may
not be of the same type) captures the receiver of the
subscriber.
Also,when a MS close to the Base Station transmits on a
channel close to one being used by a weaker mobile: The
BS faces difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile
user from the bleed over54of the adjacent channel mobile.
01/20/17

Near-Far Effect: Case 1

Uninte
nded
Tx
Strong bleed
over
Mobile User
Rx

BS as Tx

Weaker signal

The Mobile receiver is captured by the unintended, unknown

transmitter, instead of the desired
base station
55
01/20/17

Near-Far Effect: Case 2

BS as Rx
Weaker signal

Desired Mobile
Tx

Strong bleed
over
Adjacent
Channel
Mobile Tx

The Base Station faces difficulty in recognizing the actual

mobile user, when the adjacent channel bleed over is too
high.
56
01/20/17

Minimization of ACI
(1) Careful Filtering ---- min. leakage or sharp transition
(2) Better Channel Assignment Strategy
Channels in a cell need not be adjacent: For channels
within a cell, Keep frequency separation as large as
possible.
Sequentially assigning cells the successive frequency
channels.
Also, secondary level of interference can be reduced by
not assigning adjacent channels to neighboring cells.
If Frequency Reuse Factor is small, the separation
between the adjacent channel cells may not be sufficient.
That is, for large N, ACI increases.
01/20/17

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Power

01/20/17

58

Control

What is power control ?

Both the BS and MS transmitter powers

are adjusted dynamically over a wide
range.

Typical cellular systems adjust their

transmitter powers based on received
signal strength.

01/20/17

59

Why power control ?

Near-far effect

Mechanism to compensate for channel

fading

Interference reduction,

01/20/17

prolong battery life

60

Types Of Power Control

Open Loop Power Control

It depends solely on mobile unit,not as accurate as
closed loop, but can react quicker to fluctuation in
signal strength.There is no feed back from BS.

Closed Loop Power Control

BS makes power adjustment decisions and
communicates to mobile on control channels

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Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

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62

Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

Cost of a cellular network is proportional to the

number of Base Stations. The income is
proportional to the number of users.

Ways to increase capacity:

New spectrum expensive.

Architectural approaches: cell splitting, cell

sectoring, reuse partitioning, microcell zones.

Dynamic allocation of channels according to load

in the cell (non-uniform distribution of channels).

Improve access technologies.

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Cell Splitting

Cell Splitting is the process of

subdividing the congested cell into
smaller cells (microcells),Each with its
own base station and a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and
transmitter power.

Cell Splitting increases the capacity

since it increases the number of times
the channels are reused.

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Cell splitting diagram 1

01/20/17

65

An Example

The area covered by a circle with radius R is

four times the area covered by the circle with
radius R/2 The number of cells is increased
four times

The number of clusters the number of channels

and the capacity in the coverage area are
increased Cell Splitting does not change the cochannel re-use ratio Q =D/R

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01/20/17

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Cell Sectoring

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Example for sectoring

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Explanation For Cell Sectoring

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Microzones

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01/20/17

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Thank You

01/20/17

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