Specialised cells

KEY IDEA:

Cells are adapted to perform different roles within living organisms.

11. Specialised cells

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

You
LO1: MUST identify a variety of specialised cells
LO2: SHOULD link their structure to their function
within the organism

LO3: COULD

explain how surface area affects the rate of

movement of substances in and out of cells.

Palisade cells are

plant cells located
within the
mesophyll in
leaves, right below
the upper epidermis
and cuticle.
They are vertically
elongated, a
different shape from
the
spongy mesophyll
cells beneath them
in the leaf.
Their chloroplasts
absorb a major
portion of the light
energy used by the
leaf.

How do the
structures
within this cell
help it to
perform its job
in the plant?

How could
this
diagram be
improved?

White blood cells

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell and they play an important role in
the immune system .
They have multi-lobed nuclei, which enables them to squeeze though small
gaps when travelling to the site of infection.
The cytoplasm holds lysosomes that contain enzymes that are used to digest
pathogens that are ingested by the neurophil.

White blood cells can:

ingest pathogens and destroy them
produce antibodies to destroy pathogens
produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released by pathogens
There are several different types of white blood cells, each with
different functions, but they can be put into two main groups:
phagocytes or macrophages
lymphocytes
Phagocytes
Phagocytes can easily pass through blood vessel walls into the
surrounding tissue and move towards pathogens or toxins. They
then either:
ingest and absorb the pathogens or toxins
release an enzyme to destroy them
Having absorbed a pathogen, the phagocytes may also send out
chemical messages that help nearby lymphocytes to identify the
type of antibody needed to neutralise them.
http://
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa_pre_2011/human/defendingagainstinfectionr
ev4.shtml

Lymphocytes
Pathogens contain certain chemicals that are foreign to the body and are called
antigens.
Each lymphocyte carries a specific type of antibody - a protein that has a chemical
'fit' to a certain antigen.
When a lymphocyte with the appropriate antibody meets the antigen, the
lymphocyte reproduces quickly, and makes many copies of the antibody that
neutralises the pathogen.
Antibodies neutralise pathogens in a number of ways:
they bind to pathogens and damage or destroy them
they coat pathogens, clumping them together so that they are easily ingested by
phagocytes
they bind to the pathogens and release chemical signals to attract more phagocytes
Lymphocytes may also release antitoxins that stick to the appropriate toxin and stop
it damaging the body.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells or erythrocytes are a
bi-concave shape (where both sides
concave inwards).
This increases the surface area to
volume ratio of an erythrocyte.
They are flexible so that they can
squeeze through narrow blood
capillaries.
Their function is to transport oxygen
around the body. In mammals,
erythrocytes do not have a nucleus
or other organelles.
This increases space for the
haemoglobin molecules inside the
cell that carry oxygen.

Features of red blood cells

What are the specialized features of a red blood cell?
flattened, biconcave disc shape:
ensures large surface area to volume
ratio for efficient gas exchange

diameter (68 m) larger than

capillary diameter: slows blood
flow to enable diffusion of oxygen
9 of 28

large amount of
haemoglobin: for
transporting oxygen
no nucleus or
organelles:
maximizes space for
haemoglobin, so
more oxygen can be
transported
Boardworks Ltd 2012

Haemoglobin
Red blood cells are packed with haemoglobin, which is a
red protein that gives blood its colour. Haemoglobin makes
up 95% of the dry mass of a red blood cell.
Haemoglobin is made up of four protein chains,
each bound to one haem group.
In the lungs, the haem group
combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
When blood reaches the organs,
oxyhaemoglobin splits to reform
haemoglobin and oxygen, where the
oxygen is free to diffuse into cells.
10 of 28

Boardworks Ltd 2012

Other cell types we will

study later.
Start to link structure
to function.

What
structures
in the egg
and sperm
help them
during
fertilisatio
n?

Human cilia in
the trachea.
Smoking can
destroy the
cilia. What
effect will this
have?

Human
respiratory
tract. What role
do the cilia
perform? Why
is mucus
produced?

Human oviduct
ciliated
epithelium.
What role does
it perform?

Striated muscle
( striped)

Smooth muscle ( not

striped)

How do muscles move bones?

SEM image of a
neurone.
How does the
structure aid
communication
between cells
and transfer of
information?

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

A neuron consists of two major parts:
Cell Body
The central cell body contains the neuron's
nucleus, associated cytoplasm, and other
organelles.
Nerve Processes
Nerve processes are "finger-like"
projections from the cell body that are able
to conduct and transmit signals.
There are two types:
Axons - typically carry signals away from
the cell body.
Dendrites - typically carry signals toward
the cell body.

Differences that make neurons unique:

Unlike other body cells, neurons stop reproducing shortly after
birth. Because of this, some parts of the brain have more
neurons at birth than later in life because neurons die but are
not replaced.
While neurons do not reproduce in most areas of the brain,
research has shown that new connections between neurons form
throughout life.
Neurons have a membrane that is designed to send information
to other cells. The axon and dendrites are specialized structures
designed to transmit and receive information.
The connections between cells are known as synapses.
Neurons release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into
these synapses to communicate with other neurons.