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Crustal deformation

Deformation

Deformation is a general term that refers


to all changes in the original form and/or
size of a rock body
Structural geology

Structural geology is the study of


deformed rocks geometry, kinematics
and mechanics
A working knowledge of rock structures is
essential to our modern way of life
The Evidence

HORIZONTAL
ROCK STRATA
-
Depot Beach,
New South
Wales
The Evidence

THE ROCKS
WERE
ORIGINALLY
HORIZONTAL
!
Strike and Dip

For an inclined plane the strike is the compass


direction of any horizontal line on the plane. The dip is
the angle between a horizontal plane and the inclined
plane, measured perpendicular to the direction of
strike.
Strike and Dip

Strike: The line of intersection between a plane of interest


and an imaginary horizontal plane is called strike line. Note
that the strike line must be a horizontal line. The bearing of
the strike line is the strike angle, or simply strike, of the
plane of interest

Dip: Dip is the inclination of a plane of interest measured


on a vertical surface oriented perpendicular to the strike
line. Dip (or true dip) is the maximum inclination of a plane.
Strike and Dip
Strike and Dip
Map symbol of strike & dip N
N

42
Map
view
42
Dip direction
surface

Dip angle = 42
Strike 90 from dip
Folds: Anticlines
Folds: Synclines
Folds: Neutral

Recumbent fold Vertical fold


Folds: Anticlines and Synclines
Folds:Description

Folds are described by:


The plunge of their hinge line
The hinge line is the region on a folded
surface where curvature is maximum
Hinge lines may be inclined in a

plunging fold
The angle of dip of their limbs
Folds: Hinge and axial plane

Upright fold
Plunging fold
Vertical fold
Recumbent fold
Inclined fold
Asymmetric fold
Overturned fold
Folds: different types
Superposition
Anticlines & Synclines

Sequence of ages of strata indicate


the geologic structure in folds:
Anticlines: oldest layers exposed at
the center of the fold
Synclines: youngest strata exposed

along the center of the fold


Fold Belts
Fold Belts

Orogenic belts consist of long linear


series of folds
Fold geometry is not overly complex
Pattern of outcrops may appear complex

Complex folds may develop as folds are:


Re-folded

Cut by thrust faults


Mizoran-Tripura-Cachar Fold Belt
Folds can be complex
Large scale folds
Faults
Faults

Faults are fractures in rocks along which


appreciable displacement has taken place
Sudden movements along faults are the
cause of most earthquakes
Faults result from brittle deformation of
rocks, typically develop in the upper crust
Faults In large scale
Transform San Andreas Fault
faults

Atlantic ocean floor


Faults In outcrop scale
Faults Under
microscope
Faults - Morphology

Hangingwall Block
Footwall block
Dip of fault
Strike of fault
Fault line
Fault scarp
Faults
Most faults are inclined at an angle
measured from horizontal

Hangingwall Block
Footwall block
Dip of fault
Strike of fault
Fault line
Fault scarp
Faults - Classification

Dip-Slip Faults - faults that have an inclined fault


plane and along which the relative displacement or
offset has occurred along the dip direction .
Strike-Slip Faults - are faults in which the
movement is horizontal and parallel to the trend, or
strike, of the fault surface
Oblique-Slip Fault are faults in which the
movement is oblique to both dip and strike
directions
Faults - Classification
Faults Normal fault
Normal Faults - are faults that result from horizontal
tensional stresses in brittle rocks and where the
hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the
footwall block.
Faults Horst and Grabens
Normal faults occur in conjugate sets inclined towards
each other giving rise to horst and graben structures
Faults Reverse fault
faults that result from horizontal compressional
stresses in brittle rocks, where the hanging-wall
block has moved up relative the footwall block.
Faults Thrust fault

Thrust fault is a special case of a reverse fault where


the dip of the fault is less than 15 deg
Faults Strike-slip fault

faults where the relative motion on the fault has


taken place along a horizontal direction in situations
where intermediate stress axis is vertical
Faults Evidence
Slikensides are scratch marks that are left on the fault plane as
one block moves relative to the other. These marks can be used to
determine the direction and sense of motion on a fault
Faults Evidence: Displaced veins
Faults Evidence

Fault Breccias are crumbled up rocks consisting of angular fragments


that were formed as a result of grinding and crushing movement along
a fault.
Faults Evidence

Offset rock strata.


Joints

Joints are
fractures along
which no
appreciable
movement has
occurred.
Joints

Joints are among the most common rock


structure
Technically, it is a fracture with no
movement
Most occur in roughly parallel groups
Joints
Significance of joints
Chemical weathering tends to be
concentrated along joints
Many important mineral deposits are

emplaced along joint systems


Highly jointed rocks often represent a risk

to construction projects
Multiple joints joint sets
Columnar joints
Unconformities Missing record

All represent time gaps, during which there


was erosion

Disconformities : Sedimentary strata below and


above subparallel (no angular discordance)
Angular unconformities : Angular discordance
between strata above and below unconformity
(deformation during time gap)
Nonconformities : Crystalline rocks below and
sedimentary strata above
Angular unconformity - Example

Angular unconformity
Angular unconformity - Example

Angular unconformity
Making an angular unconformity

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