Ancient Astronomy

Modern astronomy traces its roots to Mediterranean

origins (Iraq, Greece, and Egypt)
Ancient observers were aware of many phenomena
that could be observed with the naked eye
Accurate measurement of the length of the year (3000 B.C.)
Correct explanation of eclipses (500 B.C.)
Cycles of lunar and planetary motions
Greeks and Chaldeans were aware of the 18year pattern of
eclipses (saros cycle) more than 2000 years ago
Precession (subtle shifting of star positions over the years)
was discovered by Hipparchus (150 B.C.)
The early Greeks were the first to tie known laws of
nature to an understanding of the universe (cosmology)
Modern science is descended most directly from the Greeks
 Babylonian Astronomy
The Babylonian civilization flourished for many
centuries, beginning around 2000 B.C.
Modern-day Iraq
Babylonian astronomers knew the length of the year to
an accuracy within a few minutes of the modern value
Done by noting that length of shadow of fixed stake changes
during the year (Suns altitude above horizon varies)
Length of year = time it takes for shadow to progress
through full cycle of varying lengths
Babylonians developed a 360-day calendar having
twelve 30-day months
Occasionally a 13th month was added (leap month)
 Babylonian Astronomy
Full circle of sky was divided into 360 parts,
corresponding to Suns position each day of the year
Babylonians originated modern system of angular
measure (360 in a full circle)
Babylonians thought number 60 was special (divides
evenly into 360, and is evenly divisible by 12)
Thus each degree has 60 parts (arcminutes) and each arcminute
has 60 parts (arcseconds)
Babylonian timekeeping system worked in the same way
Babylonians developed mathematical descriptions of
planetary motions
Were able to determine the synodic period (time needed
for planet to complete full cycle of orbital configurations) of
some planets
Never developed physical model of solar system
 Babylonian Astronomy
Babylonian studies were motivated by astrology
(pseudo-science involving belief that positions of
celestial objects influence events on Earth)
Driven by relationship between Suns motion and
seasonal events
No scientific basis exists for astrology
Assyrian and Chaldean cultures maintained
Babylonian records and teachings, and added to
them
Chaldeans developed tables predicting motions of Sun
and Moon and when eclipses occur
Gradually center of knowledge and influence shifted
to the west toward shores of Mediterranean
 Early Greek Astronomy
Greek astronomical centers:

Earliest Greek civilization arose on island of Crete

(5000 to 2000 B.C.)
Mythology of the constellations is attributed to early
Minoan culture on Crete
 Early Greek Astronomy
Groupings of stars probably named in honor of the
characters in Greek mythology, rather than due to
an actual resemblance of people or objects
 Early Greek Astronomy
The beginnings of formal scientific thought are
traced to Greek philosopher Thales (circa 624547
B.C.), who taught that rational inquiry can lead to
understanding
Legend has it that he predicted a total solar eclipse
Anaximander of Miletus (611546 B.C.) was among
the first Greek philosophers to suggest a geocentric
(Earth-centered) solar system
Earth was a flattened cylinder fixed and unmoving at
center
Sun, Moon, and stars were affixed to rotating crystalline
spheres centered on the Earth
Sun, Moon, and stars were physical objects
 Early Greek Astronomy
Anaximenes (585526 B.C.) gave mechanical
explanations of celestial phenomena
Developed concept of the celestial sphere
Pythagoras of Samos (c.582 c.500)
developed a solar system model based on
circular orbits
Spherical Earth orbits around Central Fire
Planets and stars rotate on concentric spheres (vibrations
from rubbing created a Music of the Spheres)
Celestial objects had spherical
shapes
Believed 10 to be most perfect
number
Developed a school based on
these ideas
 Early Greek Astronomy
Eudoxus of Cnidos (408355 B.C.)
Pupil of Plato (427347 B.C.)
Developed a geocentric solar system model composed of
concentric spheres, incorporating Platonic ideal of uniform
circular motion
System of 27 spheres
1 for the fixed stars
3 each for the Sun and
Moon
4 each for the 5 (known)
planets
All were in uniform circular
motion about their axes
Shortcomings: doesnt
work well for all planets,
(courtesy of Ohio State University)
doesnt explain all retrograde
motions, doesnt explain different brightness levels
 Early Greek Astronomy
Aristotle (384322 B.C.)
Pupil of Plato, tutor of Alexander the Great
His On the Heavens modified Eudoxus model
to include 55 (rather than just 27) concentric
spheres
He developed his basic principles by logical deduction,
rather than on observation and experiment
Invoked a system of physical laws and used them to
deduce properties of the universe
Using his laws, he could demonstrate that Earth is
spherical
He taught that all heavenly bodies were perfect,
unchanging spheres, and that all moved in perfect circles
Assumed that Earth lies motionless at the center of the
universe (due to natural place for the elements of earth,
air, fire, and water)
 Later Greek Astronomy
Aristotles ideas dominated cosmological thinking for
nearly 2000 years
Then the center of Greek culture shifted across the
Mediterranean to Alexandria during the 4th Century
B.C.
Geometrical principles started to be applied to astronomy
Aristarchus of Samos (310230 B.C.)
Proposed a heliocentric (Sun-centered) system
Used geometric arguments to show that Sun is much larger
than Earth and therefore must be central body in the
universe
Observed angle between Sun and Moon at First or Last Quarter
Showed Sun was at least 20x further away than the Moon (really
400x further sound method, but inadequate data)
Meant Sun was 5x bigger than Earth (more like 109x, but again
inadequate data)
 Later Greek Astronomy
Geometry of Aristarchus measurement:
(courtesy of Ohio State University)
90
A
A
90

Heliocentric idea was not accepted at the

time
People did not perceive shortcomings of
Aristotles views
No stellar parallax (apparent shifting of position
of nearby stars due to Earths orbital motion)
was observed
Why is this not really a problem?
 Later Greek Astronomy
Eratosthenes (c.276 c.195 B.C.)
Used geometric arguments to measure the size of Earth
to within 2% of the modern value
Measured the altitude of the
Sun on the same day, from
2 different locations about
500 miles apart
(Alexandria and Syene, Egypt)
From this, he determined that difference in latitude between
Alexandria and Syene is about 7 (1/50 of a full circle)
Thus, the linear distance between the 2 cities is 1/50 of the
circumference of the Earth
Sound experimental method, accurate astronomical
measurements
 Later Greek Astronomy
Hipparchus of Nicaea (165 127 B.C.)
Often called the greatest astronomer of the classical period
Developed extensive star catalogs
Discovered precession when he compared his
measurements of the positions of stars with positions
measured by Greek astronomers about 170 years prior
Precession is a slow movement of the celestial poles with respect to
the stars caused by shifting alignment of Earths rotational axis
Precession causes the coordinates of stars to change with time
Precession period of Earths rotation axis is about 26,000 years
Developed a new and improved geocentric system:
Introduced epicycle circles
Planet rotates around epicycle, center of epicycle
rotates around deferent
Earth is offset slightly from center of deferent
(courtesy of Ohio State University)
 Later Greek Astronomy
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy)
Worked in Alexandria, Egypt from about A.D. 127 151
Compiled all mathematical and astronomical knowledge of
his time
Known to us in Arabic translations that hailed it Al Magest (The
Greatest)
Elaborated Hipparchus geocentric system, adding extra
features that provide better agreement with observations
Introduced the equant, a geometrical device to account for
observed changes in a planets speed as it
moves around Earth
The epicycle still moves about the center of the
deferent
However, uniform circular motion about the
center of the deferent is replaced by variable-
speed motion about the equant (as viewed
from Earth)
(courtesy of Ohio State University)
 Later Greek Astronomy
Ptolemys final geocentric system
Epicycles and deferents for all planets, the Moon, and Sun
Includes finer adjustments (like tilt of epicycles or
additional epicylces), to best reproduce observed motions
Replaced the ideal of uniform circular motion popular in the
days of Aristotle and Plato
Used for nearly 1500 years
The next active period of astronomical research was
not until the 16th Century
 Other Cultures
Evidence that astronomy really is the oldest science
Earliest known solar observatory is in Nabta, Egypt (7000
years old)
Stonehenge (England) has a number of
alignments of standing stones to mark sunrise
at the solstices
Sun rises over the heel stone at summer solstice
Medicine wheels built by North American
Plains Indians
Spokes of wheel made of stones mark the azimuth of sunrise at
the solstices
Other monuments built to mark sun rising and setting on
the solstices and equinoxes (see Chap. 2)
Temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak, Egypt
Temple in Jerusalem
St. Peters Cathedral in Rome
 Other Cultures
Many of the developments of the Greeks were
paralleled by advances made elsewhere
However, only the Greeks appeared to have developed a
sophisticated cosmology linking the structure of the
universe to known physical laws
Chinese astronomy dates back to at least 2000 B.C.
Knew the length of the year and the synodic month to a
high degree of accuracy
Developed a star catalog similar to Hipparchus
Recorded conspicuous astronomical events such as
meteor showers, guest stars (exploding stars), and
comets
Hindu astronomers in India developed sophisticated
calendar (1500 B.C.) recognizing several long-term
cycles in lunar and solar motions unnoticed by
Greeks
 Other Cultures
Astronomers in Central and South America
developed complex calendars and constructed their
entire cultures around astronomically significant
events and alignments
Native American cultures in North America had a
rich oral tradition recognizing important astronomical
cycles
It is not known how much communication and
interaction occurred between these cultures and the
Greek civilization
 Astronomy After Ptolemy
Astronomical research went into a long decline
following the time of Ptolemy
Many aspects of western civilization went into decline
Astronomical knowledge actually diminished
Following the fall of the Greek empire, astronomical
traditions and lore were preserved by Islamic
astronomers who occupied northern Africa and
southern Europe
Translated works of Greek astronomers into Arabic
First to build observatories with instruments used to
measure positions of celestial objects
Made accurate measurements with the goal of verifying
existing theories
 Rebirth of Astronomy in Europe
The rebirth of western astronomy began when
scholars discovered and translated works from the
Islamic community into Latin
Continued growth in astronomy associated with
development of universities
Universities in Bologna, Oxford, Paris established by 1200
Critical analysis of ancient works developed
Most astronomers still believed in a
geocentric solar system
Typical medieval view of the universe
detailed in Dantes Divine Comedy (1300)
By 15th Century (Renaissance period)
astronomical observations were
plentiful
Hypotheses tested by observation
 Nicholas Copernicus (1473 1543)
Born and educated in (modern-day) Poland
Studies at the University of Cracow taught him
the standard doctrine which dated all the way
back to Aristotle, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy
Believed in a heliocentric universe
Based on aesthetic and philosophical reasons, not
because his model was more accurate than his
predecessors
He was taken by aesthetic appeal of a concentric pattern
of uniform circular motion
His mathematical model was no more accurate than that
of Ptolemy, but it was more elegant
He was forced to introduce epicycles to account for some
of the irregularities of planetary speeds and distances
 Nicholas Copernicus (1473 1543)
Reasons for a heliocentric model
Positions of Sun, Moon, and planets did not quite agree
with the best available observations
Non-uniform motion of Ptolemys model not accepted
Successes of Copernican heliocentric model
Correctly explained the cause of the seasons as being due
to a tilt in Earths rotational axis
Correctly explained the reason for retrograde motion of the
planets
Able to determine relative distances of the planets from the
Sun
In geocentric models, planetary distances were arbitrary
He was reluctant to publish his ideas and only did so
just before his death (De Revolutionibus)
 Copernican Heliocentric Model
The rotation of the Earth explains diurnal motion of
celestial objects
We are not aware of this motion because we are rotating
at the same rate as our surroundings
The Earths revolution about the Sun explains the
annual motion of the Sun
The zodiacal constellation behind
the Sun changes as the Earth
moves in its orbit
All 6 (then known) planets
orbit the Sun in circular orbits
Placed in proper order
Correct approximate scale
(courtesy of University of Toronto)
 Copernican Heliocentric Model
A superior (inferior) planet is one whose orbit is
larger (smaller) than that of the Earth
Configurations of each type of planet:
Quadrature
Greatest Elongation
Elongation
Superior conjunction
Opposition Earth
Earth Sun Conjunction Sun
Inferior conjunction

Greatest Elongation
Quadrature

Superior planets Inferior planets

Using geometry, orbital distances can be determined for
each planet
Distances typically given in terms of the astronomical unit
(AU) = distance from Earth to Sun = 1 AU
 Copernican Heliocentric Model
Orbital distance for an inferior planet
can be determined when planet is at
greatest elongation
Orbital distance for a superior planet
involves more geometry
Measure time from opposition to
(courtesy of Ohio State University)
quadrature and fraction of orbit
traveled by planet and Earth during that time
Copernicus calculated the sidereal (time to
complete 1 revolution around Sun) and synodic
(time to reach same spot in sky relative to Sun)
periods for each planet
Similar to 2 runners on a track running at different speeds
 Copernican Heliocentric Model
The heliocentric model was also able to explain
properly the retrograde motion of the planets
Occurs naturally whenever the Earth passes or is passed
by another planet
Unlike Ptolemys geocentric model, epicycles not needed
to reproduce retrograde motion
However, Copernicus introduced epicycles anyway to
account for variable orbital speeds (since he insisted on
uniform circular motion)
Retrograde motion of Mars:

(courtesy of Ohio State University)

 Opposition to Copernicus
The heliocentric system was met with almost
immediate opposition
Religious objections
Luther, Calvin, and Melancthon objected on the ground
that a moving Earth contradicted Scriptures
Scientific objections
Rotating and revolving Earth not accepted
Speed of rotation at Delaware: about 1280 km/hr
Orbital speed: 30 km/s
No observational evidence of either rotation or orbital revolution
No evidence of stellar parallax
Stars not brighter at opposition
 Galileo Galilei (1564 1642)
Born in Pisa, Italy
Began training for medical career but
switched to mathematics
In school he regularly challenged accepted belief
systems (known as Wrangler)
Galileos CV:
Professor at a university at Pisa (1589 1592)
Professor at a university at Padua (1592 1610)
Mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany (>1610)
His early experiments in mechanics (science of
motion) overturned some of the teachings of Aristotle
He discovered the concept of inertia (objects in
motion tend to stay in motion unless a force acts to
stop it)
 Galileos Experiments in Mechanics
Aristotle thought that a force was always needed to
maintain motion
He did not recognize that friction exerts a force that halts
motion in most circumstances
Galileo found that falling objects all accelerate at the
same rate, regardless of weight
Aristotle stated that the rate of fall of an object depends on
its weight
Famous experiment in which Galileo dropped balls of
different weight from the Leaning Tower of Pisa actually
carried out by a critic of Galileo
Galileos pendulum experiments
Showed that period of oscillation was constant, unaffected
by range of motion (as long as the range was relatively
small)
 Galileos Astronomical Observations
Galileo was the first to systematically observe the
nighttime sky with a telescope
The telescopes were actually worse than a good pair of
modern binoculars
He discovered many more stars than had been
suspected
Went against viewpoint that stars were points of light
attached to a rigid, crystalline sphere
Deduced that angular sizes of stars had been previously
overestimated
Stars were likely further away than was thought
He found craters and mountains
on the Moon
Violated the notion that all celestial
bodies were perfect spheres
 Galileos Astronomical Observations
He showed that sunspots must be blemishes on the
surface of the Sun
Suggested that heavenly bodies
can be imperfect
Movement of sunspots was
interpreted correctly as the rotation
of the Sun
If Sun can rotate, why not the Earth?
He found that Jupiter has four moons
orbiting it
Showing clearly that
at least some
heavenly bodies do
not orbit Earth
 Galileos Astronomical Observations
He discovered that both Venus and Mars undergo
variations in apparent size
Phases of Venus change

These observations can only be explained if these

planets orbit the Sun
M.A. Seeds, The Solar System, 5th Ed., Thomson/Brooks-Cole, 2007
 Galileos Book: The Dialogue
Galileo published his arguments in favor of a
heliocentric theory
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, the
Ptolemaic and the Copernican (1632)
Published in Italian (reached greater audience)
Given OK by Pope Urban VIII, as long as theory was
treated only as a hypothesis
Aroused great controversy
Roman Catholic Church censured Galileo and placed him
under house arrest during the last nine years of his life
Religious and scientific opposition gradually faded
away
The Churchs ban on the publication of the Dialogue was
lifted in 1822
 Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)
Considered the greatest observer prior to
the use of telescopes
Born of Danish nobility
Secured funding from King Frederick II
for an astronomical observatory on the
Danish island of Hveen
Chief building named Uraniborg (courtesy of University of Toronto)

Facilities included library, laboratory, living

quarters, workshops, printing press, and even
a jail!
Many assistants to help with observations for
20 years
Most accurate and complete data to date
Instruments include mural quadrant (right)
 Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)
Most famous for his very accurate
observations of the stars and planets
Usually accurate to within 1, the very limit of
vision with the naked eye
His instruments were usually made from metal
(rather than wood) to eliminate warping (courtesy of University of Toronto)
His accurate observations led him to reject the
heliocentric model
Inability to detect stellar parallax
His large angular measurements of stars were an illusion
Proposed an alternative model in which the Sun and
Moon orbit the Earth and the other planets orbit the
Sun
His funding was discontinued in 1597 under new king
and he spent the rest of his life analyzing data
 Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)
Born in southwestern Germany
Became an early convert to the
heliocentric hypothesis
Became an assistant to Tycho Brahe two
years before Tycho died
Spent the next 25 years analyzing Tychos data
His most detailed study was of Mars, where the data
were most extensive
Tried hard to fit various combinations of circular motion to
the observed motion of Mars without success
Included attempts to use equants similar to Ptolemys
system
In the end, he abandoned circular orbits and found that
the orbit of Mars could be fitted extremely well by an
ellipse
 Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)
An ellipse is a closed curve for which the sum of the
distances from two fixed points (the foci) is the same
for every point on the curve
If a plane intersects a hollow cone at some arbitrary angle
(but still cuts through the entire cone), the curve of
intersection is an ellipse
If instead the plane intersects the cone parallel to the base,
the curve of intersection is a circle
An ellipse can be drawn with a pencil
pushing a loose string taut between the
two foci S and S are the foci
Geometry of a = semimajor axis
an ellipse: a + a = 2a = major axis
(from University Physics, 11th Ed., Young
and Freedman)
 Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at
one focus (the other focus is
empty space)
At perihelion, the planet is
nearest the Sun (courtesy of University of Toronto)
At aphelion, the planet is farthest from the Sun
2. A line from the Sun to each planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal times
Planets will move most slowly at aphelion
and most rapidly at perihelion
3. The square of a planets sidereal (from Univ. Phys., Young and Freedman)
period P is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis a P 2 a 3 (for P measured in years and a
measured in AU)
 Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion
Keplers 3rd Law implies that there is an underlying
principle that governs the orbital motions of the
planets
The underlying principle is gravity and was explained by
Newton in the 17th Century
Using his laws, Kepler was able to improve, by a
factor of more than 100, the accuracy of tables
predicting planetary motion
This represented a resounding confirmation of a
heliocentric cosmology, since no geocentric theory could
approach the same level of accuracy
By the time of Keplers death, his work (along with that of
Galileo) had effectively invalidated the Aristotelian view of
the universe
 Example Problem
What is the sidereal period of a hypothetical planet with
an orbital semimajor axis of 0.7 AU?
Solution:
P 2 a3

P a3

P 0.7 AU 3 P 0.59 yr