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In this chapter we will continue to study the motion of objects without the
restriction we put in Chapter 2 to move along a straight line. Instead we will
consider motion in a plane (two-dimensional motion) and motion in space
(three-dimensional motion).
The following vectors will be defined for two- and three-dimensional
motion:
Displacement
Average and instantaneous velocity
Average and instantaneous acceleration
We will consider in detail projectile motion and uniform circular motion as
examples of motion in two dimensions.
Finally, we will consider relative motion, i.e., the transformation of
velocities between two reference systems that move with respect to each
other with constant velocity. (4-1)
Position Vector
The position vector r of a particle is defined as a vector whose tail is at
a reference point (usually the origin O) and its tip is at the particle at
point P.
Example: The position vector in the figure is
ˆ ˆ ˆ
r xi yj zk
r 3iˆ 2ˆj 5kˆ m
(4-2)
Displacement Vector
For a particle that changes position vector from r1 to r2 we define the displacement
vector r as follows: r r2 r1.
The position vectors r1 and r2 are written in terms of components as
r1 x1ˆi y1ˆj z1kˆ r2 x2 ˆi y2ˆj z2 kˆ
The displacement r can then be written as
r x2 x1 ˆi y2 y1 ˆj z2 z1 kˆ xˆi yˆj zkˆ
x x2 x1
y y2 y1
z z2 z1
t1
t2
(4-3)
Average and Instantaneous Velocity
Following the same approach as in Chapter 2 we define the average
velocity as displacement
average velocity =
time interval
r xˆi yˆj zkˆ xˆi yˆj zkˆ
vavg
t t t t t
(4-4)
If we allow the time interval t to shrink to zero, the following things happen:
1. Vector r2 moves toward vector r2 and r 0.
r
2. The direction of the ratio (and thus vavg ) approaches the direction
t
of the tangent to the path at position 1.
3. vavg v
v
dt
d ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx dy dz
xi yj zk ˆi ˆj kˆ vx ˆi v y ˆj vz kˆ
dt dt dt
t 0
Note: Unlike velocity, the acceleration vector does not have any specific relationship
with the path.
The three acceleration components are given by
the equations
dv dv y dvz dv
ax x ay az a
dt dt dt dt
(4-6)
Projectile Motion
The motion of an object in a vertical plane under the influence of
gravitational force is known as “projectile motion.”
The projectile is launched with an initial velocity v0 .
The horizontal and vertical velocity components are:
v0 x v0 cos 0 v0 y v0 sin 0
g
Projectile motion will be analyzed in a
horizontal and a vertical motion along
the x- and y-axes, respectively. These
two motions are independent of each
other. Motion along the x-axis has
zero acceleration. Motion along the y-
axis has uniform acceleration ay = -g.
(4-7)
Horizontal Motion: ax 0 The velocity along the x-axis does not change:
vx v0 cos 0 (eq. 1) x xo v0 cos 0 t (eq. 2)
Vertical Motion: ay g Along the y -axis the projectile is in free fall
gt 2
v y v0 sin 0 gt (eq. 3) y yo v0 sin 0 t (eq. 4)
2
If we eliminate t between equations 3 and 4 we get v v0 sin 0 2 g y yo .
2 2
y
The path equations has the form: y ax bx 2 . This is the equation of a parabola.
(4-9)
sin
vx v0 cos 0 (eq. 1) x v0 cos 0 t (eq. 2)
3/2
gt 2
v y v0 sin 0 gt (eq. 3) y v0 sin 0 t (eq. 4) O /2
2
Horizontal Range: The distance OA is defined as the horizontal range R
At point A we have: y 0. From equation 4 we have:
gt 2 gt
0
v sin 0 t 0 t v
0 sin 0 0. This equation has two solutions:
2 2
Solution 1. t 0. This solution corresponds to point O and is of no interest.
gt
Solution 2. v0 sin 0 0. This solution corresponds to point A.
2
2v0 sin 0
From solution 2 we get t . If we substitute t in eq. 2 we get
g
2v02 v02
R sin 0 cos 0 sin 2 0 .
t
g g
O A
R has its maximum value when 0 45 :
R v02
Rmax (4-10)
2sin A cos A sin 2 A g
tA Maximum Height H
g
H v02 sin 2 0
H
2g
We can calculate the maximum height using the third equation of kinematics
for motion along the y-axis: v y 2 v yo
2
2 a y yo .
In our problem: y0 0, y H , v yo v0 sin 0 , v y 0 , and a g
2
v02 sin 2 0
v yo
v 2 gH H
2
yo .
2g 2g
(4-12)
Uniform Circular Motion:
A particle is in uniform circular motion if it moves on a circular path of
radius r with constant speed v. Even though the speed is constant, the
velocity is not. The reason is that the direction of the velocity vector
changes from point to point along the path. The fact that the velocity
changes means that the acceleration is not zero. The acceleration in uniform
circular motion has the following characteristics:
1. Its vector points toward the center C of the circular path, thus the name
“centripetal.” v2
2. Its magnitude a is given by the equation a .
r
Q
The time T it takes to complete a full revolution is
r known as the “period.” It is given by the equation
C r P
r
R 2 r
T .
v
(4-13)
yP xP
v vx ˆi v y ˆj v sin ˆi v cos ˆj
sin cos
r r
Here xP and yP are the coordinates of the rotating particle.
y P ˆ xP ˆ dv v dyP ˆ v dxP ˆ
v v i v j. Acceleration a = i j.
r r dt r dt r dt
dyP dxP
We note that v y v cos and vx v sin .
dt dt
v2 ˆ v2 ˆ v 2
v2
cos sin
2 2
a cos i sin j a a x2 a y2
r r r r
ay v 2 / r sin
tan tan a points toward C.
ax v 2 / r cos
vx v sin
v y v cos
P
C A C
cos sin 1
2 2
(4-14)
Relative Motion in One Dimension:
The velocity of a particle P determined by two different observers A and B varies
from observer to observer. Below we derive what is known as the “transformation
equation” of velocities. This equation gives us the exact relationship between the
velocities each observer perceives. Here we assume that observer B moves with a
known constant velocity vBA with respect to observer A. Observers A and B
determine the coordinates of particle P to be xPA and xPB , respectively.
xPA xPB xBA . Here xBA is the coordinate of B with respect to A.
d d d
We take derivatives of the above equation: PA
x PB
x xBA
dt dt dt
vPA vPB vBA If we take derivatives of the last equation and take
dvBA aPA aPB
into account that 0
dt
Note: Even though observers A and B
measure different velocities for P,
they measure the same acceleration.
(4-15)
Relative Motion in Two Dimensions:
Here we assume that observer B moves with a known constant velocity vBA with
respect to observer A in the xy-plane.
Observers A and B determine the position vector of particle P to be
rPA and rPB , respectively.
rPA rPB rBA . We take the time derivative of both sides of the equation
d d d
rPA rPB rBA vPA vPB vBA vPA vPB vBA
dt dt dt
If we take the time derivative of both sides of the last equation we have:
d d d dvBA
vPA vPB vBA . If we take into account that 0 aPA aPB .
dt dt dt dt