Logical Fallacies

Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence

Questionable/False Cause
The questionable cause fallacy occurs when one possible
cause of a phenomenon is assumed to be a (or the) cause
although reasons are lacking for excluding other possible
causes.
The most common form is post hoc
Post hoc: This form of the questionable/false cause fallacy
occurs whenever an arguer illegitimately assumes that
because event X preceded event Y, X caused Y.
Since I came into office 2 years ago, the rate of violent crime has
decreased significantly. So, it is clear that the longer prison
sentences we recommended are working.
Questionable Cause...
Not all false cause fallacies involve the unwarranted
assumption that if X precedes Y, then X causes Y
The best professional athletes receive big salaries. Therefore,
in order to guarantee that Smith will become one of the best
professional athletes, we should give him a big salary.
Another version is Oversimplified Cause fallacy: occurs
when many causes are (or may well be) operative but
one of them is illegitimately assumed to be the sole
cause
The scores on standardized tests have been dropping for
several decades. What accounts for this? Well, during these
same decades, the average time a child spends watching TV
(per day) has increased. So, the cause is obvious: Kids are
watching too much TV when they need to be reading instead.
Different Ways to Indicate a Causal
Connection
A produces B A makes B A leads to B
A creates B A accounts for B A brings about B

A generates B A determines B A is the source of B

A results in B A is the origin of B A gives birth to B

A gives rise to B A brings B to pass B occurs by As
influence
Slippery Slope
This fallacy occurs when the arguer assumes that a
chain reaction will occur but there is insufficient
evidence that one (or more) events in the chain will
cause the others.
Never buy a lottery ticket. People who buy lottery tickets soon
find that they want to gamble on horses. Next, they develop a
strong urge to go to Las Vegas and bet their life savings in the
casinos. The addiction to gambling gradually ruins their family
life. Eventually, they die, homeless and lonely.
Slippery Slope...
Catastrophizing
I told a joke at the party. It flopped. So, everyone there
thought I was a loser. So, Ill never be invited again. In fact, if
word gets out, I wont be invited anywhere. And Im sure
theyre all talking about my stupid joke. So, Ive completely
ruined my chances for a decent social life. Theres nothing left
for me now but years of loneliness and misery. How I wish Id
never told that joke!
Loaded or Complex Question
Asking a question that illegitimately presupposes some
conclusion alluded to in the question.
Have you stopped beating your wife?

Who is the governor of Punjab?

Will you please be kind and loan me $100?

Loaded or Complex Question...
A loaded question is not the same as a leading question
Attorney: Is it true that on the afternoon of February 4 you saw the defendant
enter the Starbucks Coffee Shop at the corner of Boston and Queen Anne
Streets?
Witness: Yes.
Attorney: And is it true that you saw the defendant reach into his coat pocket
and pull out a knife?
Witness: Yes.
Attorney: Did the knife have serrated edge?
Witness: Yes.
Attorney: Did the defendant point the knife at a man standing behind the cash
register and say, Open the cash register or die?
Witness: Yes.
Loaded or Complex Question...
Why is math so boring? Probably because its so
abstract.
Hasty Generalization
The hasty generalization fallacy occurs when there is a
reasonable likelihood that the sample is not
representative of the group. Such a likelihood may arise if
the sample is either too small or not randomly selected.
After only one year the alternator went out in Mr. Hansons new
Chevrolet. Mrs. Dodsons Oldsmobile developed a transmission
problem after six months. The obvious conclusion is that cars
made by General Motors are just a pile of junk these days
My experience with my ex-wife was such a bad one that I have
no intention of ever marrying again. In fact, I wouldnt
recommend marriage to anyone.
Hasty Generalization...
Ten Arab fundamentalists hijacked planes and crashed
them into the World Trade Centre in New York City. The
message is clear: Arabs are nothing but a pack of
religious fanatics prone to violence.
Vitamin C really works. Every member of my family
used to have at least one winter cold every year. Last
fall each of us started taking one thousand milligrams of
vitamin C a day, and there hasnt been even a sniffle at
our house in more than nine months.
Hasty Generalization...
Since each member of my family for nine months has been
taking one thousand milligrams of vitamin C daily,
(premise)
and during that period we have had no colds, (premise)
and during the previous cold season, we each had at least
one cold, (premise)
[and the sample of one family is a sufficient sample to
determine what is true for all people,] (implicit premise)
Therefore, a vitamin C therapy of one thousand milligrams
daily will prevent the common cold. (conclusion)
Hasty Generalization...
One hundred thousand voters from Orange County,
California, were surveyed on their choice for governor,
and 68 percent said they intend to vote for the
Republican candidate. Clearly the Republican candidate
will be elected.
Fallacy of Inconsistency
One who attempts to advance an argument that is self-
contradictory commits a fallacy of inconsistency.
An argument that uses premises that are not
compatible with one another cannot function as a good
argument, for it cannot lead one to an acceptable or
true conclusion.
Since A, (premise)
and not-A, (premise)
[No acceptable conclusion can be drawn.]
Fallacy of Inconsistency...
A politician says he will maintain or increase all present
governmental services and also lower taxes.
Difference between real and apparent inconsistencies
Example
The following statement is true
The preceding statement is false
Logic and Psychology
Hassan is looking at Nadia, but Nadia is looking at
Farhan. Hassan is married, but Farhan is not. Is a
married person looking at an unmarried person?

A. Yes
B. No
C. Cannot Be Determined
Logic and Psychology
A bat and a ball cost $1.10 in total. The bat costs
$1 more than the ball. How much does the ball
cost?