DISCUSS HOW TO REDUCE THE HEALTH

IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION

DY DERRICK KLEIN A 16066445D
FUNG KA MAN 13083729D
HO LOK YIU 16046905D
PANG HIO CHENG 16047154D
WONG LOK HEI 16066963D
YU WING TUNG 16069155D 1
DISCUSS HOW TO REDUCE THE HEALTH
IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION

2
INTRODUCTION
3
 INTRODUCTION South China Morning Post 1st May 2015:

HK is facing a severe
Des
Air Road is the most polluted area:
Voeux
PM2.5 in Eastern District, Western District
pollution problem!!!!
Pollutants weighted 55 micrograms per
and Central in Hong Kong exceeded the
WHO standard ranging from 80 days to cubic metre, exceeded the WHO limit of
280 days in a year. 10 micrograms. 4
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Air Pollution:
Air pollution is a contamination of either indoor or outdoor environment, which
changes the original characteristics of the atmosphere by any chemical,
physical or biological agent.

Air Pollutants:
Primary air pollutants: directly emitted to the atmosphere.
Secondary air pollutants: formed within the atmosphere via the chemical
reactions of the primary pollutants.

What is air pollution?

World Health Organization (WHO, n.d.; 2006) 5
Air Pollutants:
Particulate matter (PMX) Carbon dioxide(CO2), Carbon monoxide(CO), Ozone(O3),
Nitrogen oxides (NOX), Sulphur dioxide(SO2), etc. 6
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Global health issue:

It defines as the health- related issue that the individual countries

cannot ease the situation only by their own effort due to its
seriousness and high coverage of this.

UK Government strategy 200813

INTRODUCTION
World Health Organization publication on Global Health Risk in 2009:
Outdoor air pollution is ranked as 14th global risk factor for mortality in the year 2014.

World Health Organization (2012):

Estimated about 3 million premature deaths are due to poor air quality,
About 90% of premature deaths come from developing countries of Western Pacific
and South-East Asia low-income family.

World Health Organization (2016):

Over 90% of the people are living in a poor air quality environment
Air pollutants content are exceeding the suggested levels
They are come from developing countries of Western Pacific and South-East Asia low-
income family.

8
 INTRODUCTION
Potential health impacts:
Acute and Chronic impacts
eg. Cardiopulmonary health, Lung disease, Respiratory disease, Asthmatic
attacks, Stroke mortality and Reduced life expectancy.

Vulnerable stakeholders:

People with asthma, lung disease, cardiovascular disease, Pregnant women, Children under age of
9
fourteenth, Elderly, Outdoor workers, Athletes who exercise rapidly outdoors
CAUSES OF AIR
POLLUTION
10
Causes of air pollution
Road transportation
Number of vehicles increased
(China) In 2015, 23.85 million new cars were registered
car ownership up to 172 million

Emissions from transportation

European Environment Agency (2013) :
The road transportation 40% of nitrogen oxides + about 30%
particulate matters + over 25%of carbon oxides in EU27

11
Causes of air pollution
Road transportation
Most of the cars are generated by gasoline and diesel engines
Use petrol as the fuel (made up of hydrocarbons)
Engine cannot burn completely suspended particulates,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and lead
are exhausted.

12
Causes of air pollution
Household products and human activities (Indoor air
pollution)
The hazardous household products
detergents respirable suspended particulates
Carpets, furniture fabrics, pressed wood products formaldehyde
beauty and hair products volatile organic chemicals

13
Causes of air pollution
Household products and human activities (Indoor air
pollution)
Human activities
using heating apparatus, cooking, smoking carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.
In some developing countries, still burning coal or wood to get warm
Air conditioners

14
Causes of air pollution
Industrial technology in developing countries
China ( World Industry)
rely largely on coal power China consumed over 3.43 billion tons of
coal in 2011 ( China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2012)
the rise of secondary production Industrial air pollutants
manufacturing, production and other industrial process

15
Causes of air pollution
Industrial technology in developing countries
Do not have proper sewerage facilities
many factories build up without proper Sewerage equipment
polluted air was discharged without proper treatment
does not cope with sustainable development
polluted air will harm the surrounding air quality

16
Causes of air pollution
Combustion of fossil fuels AND Waste incineration
Waste incindeators, industries and power plants

Emit high levels of carbon monoxide, organic compounds and

chemicals. (International Energy Agency, 2015)

In 2012 manufacturing accounted for 47%

of Chinas total carbon emissions, while
thermal power generation contributed
32%, and the transportation sector
accounted for only 6%.
17
Causes of air pollution
Waste Production
Households in the UK 28.4 million tonnes of domestic rubbish
about 500 kilograms for every person in the country.
(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2014)
Landfilled waste produces the second most important greenhouse gas:
methane.
Currently 90% of household waste collected by councils is dumped into
landfill sites.

18
HEALTH IMPACTS
OF AIR POLLUTION
19
BACKGROUND
Response to pollutions may vary from individuals in genetic predisposition,
physiologically and time exposing time to air pollutants (Basahi et al., 2014)
Some may be more vulnerable to air pollution than others
Acute and chronic effects

2 health impacts to be discussed in detail:

1. Respiratory system- related diseases
2. Cardiopulmonary related diseases

20
HEALTH IMPACTS
Background
Both short-term and long-term exposure to air pollutants will have health
impacts WHO (2003): mainly affected by the air
1. Cardiopulmonary disease pollutants of particulate matters such as particle
matters rather than the larger air pollutants

Caused by the ozone, particulate matters

2. Respiratory disease concentration and nitrogen dioxides

21
CARDIOPULMONARY-RELATED
DISEASES
Types of cardiopulmonary disease:

Strong relationship between long- term exposure to the particle matters (Pope III
and Dockery, 2006) and ozone (Kampa, & Castanas, 2008) and:
i. Chronic inflammatory lung injury
ii. Declines in lung function

Increase the risk lung dysfunctional of children (Si and Cardinal, 2016):

Breath in PM may increase the production of antigen-specific immunoglobulins

Increase in the lungs sensitivity to microbial infection (Basahi et al., 2014) 22
CARDIOPULMONARY-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Lung cancer:

Positive relationship between the lung cancer and particulate matter

(PM2.5) and ozone:
Lung cancer incidence associated with an increase of 10 mg/m3in PM2.5 and
an increase of 10 ppb in ozone in China, especially for women in urban area,
during 19902009 (Guo et al., 2016)

223,000 international deaths relating to lung cancer due to air pollution (The
Global Burden of Disease Project, 2010)
23
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES
Background
2. Respiratory disease:
1. Respiratory diseases
2. Asthmatic attack

24
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONT)
Causes of respiratory disease:

Airborne particulate matters cause inflammatory and oxidative stress-related

process on human body, which will further affect on respiratory tract through:
1. Inflammatory response
2. Aggravation of existing airway infection
3. Damaged of pulmonary defense mechanisms (Basahi et al., 2014)

Strong relationship between long- term exposure to the particle matters

and respiratory distress (Pope III and Dockery, 2006)
25
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Causes of respiratory disease (Contd):

10g/m 3 increase in PM10 concentration (Dockery and Pope,1994):

1. Increase of the occurrence of lower respiratory symptoms by 3%
2. Increase in respiratory hospital admissions by 0.8%

Ozone raises the risk of people having respiratory infection and increased
the pre-existing respiratory sickness (Centre for Health Protection, 2016)

26
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Asthmatic attacks-
Background:
Incendiary disease of the lung
Caused by both outdoor and indoor pollutants (National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences) and changes in weather and season
1. Ozone concentration
2. Particulate matters concentration
3. Nitrogen dioxides

27
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Asthmatic attacks (Contd)-
Causes of asthmatic attacks:
McDonnell et al. (1999):
15-year investigation on 3091 nonsmokers
3.2%-4.3% new respondents discovered with the diagnoses of asthma after the
long- term contact with the ozone

Centre for Health Protection (2016):

Ozone is reactive gas which may cause irritation and stimulate asthmatic
attacks to people who are having asthma disease
28
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Asthmatic attacks-
Causes of asthmatic attacks (Contd):
Dockery and Pope (1994):
Approximately 3% increase in the asthmatic attacks subject to an increase in
PM10 concentration by 10g/m 3

Basahi et al. (2014):

Exposure to nitrogen dioxides may increase the reactivity of bronchial and
aggravate the symptom of asthma

29
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-RELATED
DISEASES (CONTD)
Asthmatic attacks (Contd)-
Most vulnerable stakeholder:
Unhealthy development of asthmatic children are related to air pollution
(Lerodiakonou et. al, 2016) as they spend more times in the outdoor
Children behaviors and development stages are crucial statement for reason
why children are exposure longer than other stakeholders, which is linkage to
the air pollution (Si and Carinal study, 2016)

30
Mortality

Mortality is found to be related to air pollution

Reducing life expectancy,
Stroke mortality,
Cardiovascular disease, heart disease, stroke, respiratory disease and lung cancer
Due to the inhale of the air pollutants in both short term and long term
31
Mortality
Causes of mortality:
Dockery et al. (1993):
There is a particularly higher relationship between mortality and air pollutants
Fine, inhalable air and sulfate particles than sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide
Fine particles have a higher concentration of toxicity and easier to be inhaled
deeply due to their smaller particle size.

Chen et al. (2005):

All-cause, lung cancer, and non-malignant respiratory were more greatly correlated
with PM2.5 than PM10.

Inhale of PMX, NOX,SO2 may leads to Death

32
Mortality
Evidence:
Dockery et al. (1993):
A research was done on 5 regions including Massachusetts, Tennessee, Ohio,
Wisconsin and Kansas (In the U.S.A)
Recording the concentrations of the air pollutants and mortality cases
Adjusting the personal factors ( age, smoking habit, body- mass index and
occupational factor)

It is found that the most polluted regions have a higher average mortality rate
of 0.18 than the least polluted regions.
th e mo r t a li ty rat e!
ble m w ill incre as e
Air pollution pro
33
 Mortality
Evidence:
Pope III and Dockery (2006):
Developed further on the research
conducted by Dockery et al. (1993)
Analyzing more additional studies.

Longer period of repeated contacting with the

air pollutants
more significant and stronger relationship
with the mortality rate

i.e. There is a nearly linear relation between concentration of pollutants and

mortality rate. 34
Mortality
Evidence:
WHO publication on Global Health Risk in 2009:
Outdoor air pollution is ranked as 14th global risk factor for mortality in
the year 2014.

World Health Organization (2012):

Estimated about 3 million premature deaths are due to poor air quality

Chang, Pan, Xie and Gao (2003):

During 2009-2010, 200.4 non-accidental deaths per day in average,
including 101 from cardiovascular diseases and 20.6 from respiratory
diseases.

35
Mortality
Vulnerable stakeholders:
Babies:
Cardiopulmonary system of a newborn is not well developed, babies have less immunity to
pollutants.

Male:
Adventist Health Study of Smog (as cited in Pope & Dockery, 2006):
All-cause mortality, non-malignant respiratory mortality, and lung cancer mortality were
significantly associated with ambient PM10 concentrations in males but not in female

Elderly:
Chang et al., 2003:
152,714 deaths in Beijing during 2009-2010, while 0.83% in those aged 0-4 years old, 5.17%
aged 5-44 years old, 19.81% aged 45-64 years old and 74.19% aged 65 years or older
36
SOLUTIONS TO AIR
POLLUTION
37
 International cooperation
Promotion of electric car
Reducing coal use
Using renewable energy

Mitigation Recovery

Short term-
Emergency
response plan

- Restrict/ Ban the - Promotion and

Preparedness Education
vehicles from
running Response
- Restrict factories
from emissions
- Shut down schools 38
Short term

39
Restrict/ Ban the vehicles from
running Emergency Response
e.g. Odd number plate off the road on Plans
Mon, Wed and Fri; Even number plate
as soon as possible to
off the road on Tue, Thur and Sat
stop additional pollutants
emissions
Restrict factories from Deterioration of air
emissions
e.g. every friday 4-6pm, factories need Also, ask students
to stop industrial emission
(vulnerable groups) to
stay indoors
to avoid their health
condition getting worse/
Shut down schools cause disease by poor air
if the Air Pollution Index is high quality

40
Long Term

41
Promotion of Electric Cars
Bac Dealing
kgr with the
ou
cause of
nd
huge
vehicular
population
Electric
vehicles
have no
exhausted
gases
emission
Reducing
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/prob_solutions/promotion_ev.html
http://shs.ntu.edu.tw/student/?p=1778 42
Promotion of Electric Cars
(USA)
National
Academy
of
Sciences:
reducing
the
mortality to
70%
The
British
governme 43
International Cooperation
Aims
Increasing the developed countries participation
Reaching international consensus concerning environmental protection
Reducing the seriousness of air pollution through binding treaties
Reducing transnational emission

44
International Cooperation
individual countries cannot ease the situation only by
their own effort
Developing countries lacking capital & technology
Developed countries refused to cooperate

45
 International Cooperation - Flow
Developed countries
Reaching international are more willing to
consensus in dealing participate in
with air pollution combatting the
required cooperation problem of air
International pollution
cooperation in
environmental E.g.
protection Raise different countries Sharing advanced energy
awareness on air technology
pollution (environmental rely less on fossil fuel
protection) less air pollutant emitted
Not shifting their own
responsibility onto the
developing
46 countries
 International Cooperation
Calling international conferences
Earth Summit (1992)
Signing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
Kyoto Conference (1997)
Passing the Kyoto Protocol
Reducing the releases of greenhouse gases 6% for Japan, 7% for the USA,
8% for the EU

47
Example - China: how can international
cooperation reduce air pollution in China?

48
International Cooperation - China
China as the World Factory
Economic globalization: Multinational corporations relocate their
production line to China
China became the largest manufacturing country in the World

Leading to serious air pollution in China

Through international cooperation:
Developed countries bear more responsibility in environmental protection
The developed countries share the advanced technology to China
Optimization of Chinas production technology & energy structure
Reducing transnational emission
Reducing the seriousness of air pollution in China
49
Restriction on coal use
Persuasive way
China's power plants utilization rate drop by
Economic incentives to
7.5 per cent in 9 months last year (XIE, 2016)
persuade manufacturing
Make good use on the electricity
industry electricity and
reduce use too much coals
phase out the usage of too
much coal

e.g. Cut taxes, Subsidize

Many Chinese factories Excessive
(They might support if
get free coal mines pay consumption
environmental protection
little or nothing for
does not cost too much)
their coal generate more
less interest to use polluted gases
Legislation
environmental friendly
restriction of coal use
ways
50
Use cleaner, renewable gas
Reduce the vehicle emission
-Carbon dioxide and toxic gases emission reduction
-Compare to oil, it is better to use compressed natural gas vehicles
-lower cost and is cleaner burning; reduce ozone-forming emissions of 80% compared to
gasoline vehicles (Consumer Energy Center.org)
-Ultimately, it is better for the cities to use cleaner renewable gas instead of greenhouse gases
such as gasoline, diesel fuel, fossil fuels, oil etc
-Solar, wind, wave power, Hydroelectricity produce energy without any
pollutants emission X deteriorate the air quality

51
 Promotion and Education
Increase public awareness on reduce air pollutants and living in
green way
-Promote through mass media by the Government and professional entrepreneurs
-Encourage people to take public transportation/ free transportation
-Cooperation between big companies and the Government (leading role and role models)

Emphasize on education
-environmental education and training reduce household gas
-First level: 4R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover)
-Second level: integral education and training, sustainable energy program

Knowing their responsibility and ways to reduce air pollutants raise

environmental awareness reduce air pollutants as they can stop air pollution
from getting worse
CONCLUSION
53
The Causes of air pollution
Combustion of fossil fuels
Energy use
Waste incineration
Road transportation (high vehicular volume)
Household products and human activities (indoor air pollution)
Backward industrial technology in developing countries

The health impacts of air pollution

Lung cancer
Respiratory disorder
Increase the mortality

54
What can we do to tackle air pollution problem?
1. Promotion of Electric Cars
. no exhausted gases emission

2. Through international cooperation

. share the advanced technology to developing countries
. all countries should be responsible to environmental issue

55
 3. Government measures
Economic incentives and subsidies to persuade manufacturing
industry

4. Use cleaner, renewable gas

use cleaner renewable gas instead of greenhouse gases such as
gasoline, diesel fuel, fossil fuels, oil etc

5.Promotion and Education

Encourage people to take public transportation
environmental education and training

56
References:
Air pollution. (2016). World Health Organization. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/

Akbari, H., Pomerantz, M., & Taha, H. (2001). Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas. Solar energy, 70(3), 295-310.

Alba, N., Gasso, S., Lacorte, T., & Baldasano, J. (1997). Characterization of municipal solid waste incineration residues from facilities with different air pollution control
systems. Journal of the air & waste management association, 47(11), 1170-1179.

Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health. (2016). World Health Organization. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/

Auten RL, Foster WM. 2011. Biochemical effects of ozone on asthma during postnatal development. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1810:1114-1119

Basahi, J., Ismail, I., & Hassan, I. (2014). A global challenge of air pollution and public health: a mini review. Advances in Environmental Biology, 281-289.

Bates, D. V. (1995). The effects of air pollution on children. Environmental health perspectives, 103(Suppl 6), 49.

Beaglehole, R., & Bonita, R. (2010). What is global health? Global Health Action, 3.
Bell, M. C., Galatioto, F., Chakravartty, A., & Namdeo, A. (2013). A novel approach for investigating the trends in nitrogen dioxide levels in UK cities. Environmental pollution,
183, 184-194.
Bransford, K. J., & Lai, J. A. (2002). Global climate change and air pollution: common origins with common solutions. JAMA, 287(17), 2285-2285.

Coal power: air pollution. (2016). Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved from http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/coalvswind/c02c.html#.V_ndwJN97eQ
57
Dockery, D. W., & Pope, C. A. (1994). Acute respiratory effects of particulate air pollution. Annual review of public health, 15(1), 107-132.

Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., . . . Speizer, F. E. (1993). An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. New
England journal of medicine, 329(24), 1753-1759.

Dubai Statistics Center. (2015). Air pollution indicators at monitoring sites - Emirate of Dubai. Retrieved from https://www.dsc.gov.ae/en-us/Themes/Pages/Climate-and-
Environment.aspx?Theme=35

Dubai Statistics Center. (2015). Bus passengers' trips by months. Retrieved from https://www.dsc.gov.ae/Report/DSC_SYB_2015_11%20_%2017.pdf

Dubai Statistics Center. (2015). Metro passengers' trips by lines. Retrieved from https://www.dsc.gov.ae/Report/DSC_SYB_2015_11%20_%2011.pdf

Electric Cars (30 March 2009). Retrieved Month Date, from http://www.wwf.org.hk/news/_m.cfm?6562/Carbon-Reduction-Technology-Series-2-Electric-Car

Electric vehicles and the energy sector - impacts on Europe's future emissions. (2016). European Environment Agency. Retrieved from
http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/transport/electric-vehicles/electric-vehicles-and-energy

Environmental Pollution Centers (2009). ABOUT AIR POLLUTANTS. Retrieved October 8, 2016 from Environmental pollution centers, Web site:
http://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/air/

Environmental Protection Department. (2015). An overview on air quality and air pollution control in Hong Kong. Retrieved from
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air /air_maincontent.html

European Union Emission Inventory Report 1990-2011 Under UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). (2013). European Environmental
Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.
58

Guo, Y., Zeng, H., Zheng, R., Li, S., Barnett, A. G., Zhang, S., ... & Williams, G. (2016). The association between lung cancer incidence and ambient air pollution in China:
A spatiotemporal analysis. Environmental research, 144, 60-65.

Hamer, G. (2003). Solid waste treatment and disposal: effects on public health and environmental safety. Biotechnology Advances, 22(1), 71-79.
http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1903803/solutions- chinas-pollution-exist-wheres- political-will

Hu, J., Xiao, Z., Zhou, R., Deng, W., Wang, M., & Ma, S. (2011). Ecological utilization of leather tannery waste with circular economy model. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 19(2), 221-228.

Ierodiakonou, D., Zanobetti, A., Coull, B. A., Melly, S., Postma, D. S., Boezen, H. M., ... & Hallstrand, T. S. (2016). Ambient air pollution, lung function, and airway
responsiveness in asthmatic children. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 137(2), 390-399.

IHME (2015). China | Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Retrieved October 8, 2016 from, Health data Web site: http://www.healthdata.org/china

Jacobson, M. Z. (2008). On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(3).

Johnke, B., Hoppaus, R., Lee, E., Irving, B., Martinsen, T., & Mareckova, K. (1998). Emissions from waste incinerator. Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 455-468.

Jung KH, Yan B, Moors K, Chillrud SN, Perzanowski MS, Whyatt RM, et al. 2012. Repeated exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and asthma: Effect of sero atopy.
Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology: official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology 109:249254.

Kampa, M., & Castanas, E. (2008). Human health effects of air pollution. Environmental pollution, 151(2), 362-367.

59
Katsouyanni, K., Pantazopoulou, A., Touloumi, G., Tselepidaki, I., Moustris, K., Asimakopoulos, D., Trichopoulos, D. (1993). Evidence for interaction between air pollution
and high temperature in the causation of excess mortality. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, 48(4), 235-242.

Kreuzer, L., & Patel, C. (1971). Nitric oxide air pollution: detection by optoacoustic spectroscopy. Science, 173(3991), 45-47.

McDonnell, W. F., Abbey, D. E., Nishino, N., & Lebowitz, M. D. (1999). Long-term ambient ozone concentration and the incidence of asthma in nonsmoking adults: the
AHSMOG Study. Environmental Research, 80(2), 110-121.

Mortimer, K., Gordon, S. B., Jindal, S. K., Accinelli, R. A., Balmes, J., & Martin, I. I. W. J. (2012). HOusehold air pollution is a major avoidable risk factor for cardiorespiratory
disease. Chest, 142(5), 1308-1315. doi: 10.1378/chest.12-1596.

Mukhopadhyay, K., & Forssell, O. (2005). An empirical investigation of air pollution from fossil fuel combustion and its impact on health in India during 19731974 to
19961997. Ecological Economics, 55(2), 235-250.

Perera, F. P. (2016). Multiple threats to child health from fossil fuel combustion: Impacts of air pollution and climate change. Environ. Health Perspect.

Perera, F., Li, T. Y., Zhou, Z. J., Yuan, T., Chen, Y. H., Qu, L., ... & Tang, D. (2008). Benefits of reducing prenatal exposure to coal-burning pollutants to childrens
neurodevelopment in China. Environ Health Perspect, 116(10), 1396-400.

Pope III, C. A., & Dockery, D. W. (2006). Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. Journal of the air & waste management association, 56(6), 709-
742.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America vol. 111 no. 52

Promotion of Electric Vehicles in Hong Kong (2014). Retrieved November 18, 2016 from Hong Kong, Environmental Protection Department Web site:
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/prob_solutions/promotion_ev.html 60
Qiu. (2007, January 4). Guangzhou to be rid of motorcycles. Guangzhou to Be Rid of Motorcycles. Retrieved November 14, 2016, from
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-01/04/content_773935.htm

SCMP (2016). Beijing on pollution alert as smog season sets in. Retrieved October 8, 2016 from, South China Morning Post Web site:
http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2024483/beijing-pollution-alert-smog-season-sets

Selden, T. M., & Song, D. (1994). Environmental quality and development: is there a Kuznets curve for air pollution emissions? Journal of Environmental Economics and
management, 27(2), 147-162.

Si, Q., & Cardinal, B. J. (2016). The Health Impact of Air Pollution and Outdoor Physical Activity on Children and Adolescents in Mainland China. The Journal of
Pediatrics.

South China Morning Post. (2015). Pollution exceeds WHO limit for 75pc of the year. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment
/article/1781677/air-pollution-central-and-causeway-bay-exceeds-who

Spare The Air: Health Effects of Air Pollution. (2016). Sparetheair.com. Retrieved from http://www.sparetheair.com/health.cfm?page=healthoverall

Tessum, C. W., Hill, J. D., & Marshall, J. D. (2014). Life cycle air quality impacts of conventional and alternative light-duty transportation in the United States. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, 111(52), 18490-18495.

The Health Effects of Air Pollution. (2016). Centre for Health Protection. Retrieved from http://www.chp.gov.hk/en/content/9/460/3557.html
Wang, Y., Sun, M., Yang, X., & Yuan, X. (2016). Public awareness and willingness to pay for tackling smog pollution in China: a case study. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 112, 1627-1634.

WHO (2016). Air pollution. Retrieved October 8, 2016 from WPRO, Web site: http://www.wpro.who.int/china/mediacentre/factsheets/air_pollution/en/
61
Williams, M. (2016). What Causes Air Pollution? Universe Today. Retrieved from http://www.universetoday.com/81977/causes-of-air-pollution/

World Health Organization. (2003). Health aspects of air pollution with particulate matter, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Germany: World Health Organization.

World Health Organization. (2006). Air quality guidelines: global update 2005: particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Europe: World Health
Organization.

World Health Organization. (2016). Health topics- Air pollution. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/

World Health Organization. (2016). WHO releases country estimates on air pollution exposure and health impact. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/air-pollution-estimates/en/

Ying, C. H. E. N., & Station, Y. D. E. M. (2016). Characteristics and Causes of Heavy Air Pollution Episodes in Yuhang District of Hangzhou. Environmental Science
& Technology, 5,033.

62
THE END

63
Q&A Section

64