3.

1 Coordination & Response

 Coordination and
Response
1. An organism experiences changes
in its internal and external
environments all the time
2. The changes which cause
responses in the body are called
stimuli
 Stimuli
(The changes which cause responses in the body)

Internal stimuli External stimuli

(in the body) (surrounding)

Eg : Eg :
Changes in Changes in
blood pressure light intensity
Changes in Changes in
sugar level temperature
- Question 1
What is the structure that detect stimuli?

Question 2
What is the structure that carry out the responses?

Question 3
What is the necessity for organisms to respond to
stimuli?
The main component and pathways involved in
detecting and responding to stimulus.
Afferent
pathway
Stimulus Receptor Integrating
(cell/organ) centre (brain/
spinal cord)
Efferent
pathway

Response Effector
(muscle/
gland)
Internal stimulus receptor

Body temperature thermoreceptor

Osmotic osmoreceptor
concentration of
blood
pH of blood chemoreceptor

Blood pressure baroreceptor

- Mammals detect stimuli through receptors
- effectors carry out the responses
- when stimuli are detected & result in an
appropriate response, it is called coordination

Coordination System

Nervous System Endocrine System

3.2 The Role Of Human
Nervous System
3.2.1 Organisation of the nervous system

Human Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

(CNS) (PNS)

Brain Cranial Spinal

Spinal Cord
nerves nerves
3.2.2 Human Brain

Human brain consists of :

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thalamus
 Medulla
Regulate
oblongata
automatic
functions, reflex
centre
1) Cerebrum
- largest & most complex part
- left hemisphere controls movement on right
side of the body
- right hemisphere controls movement on left
side of the body
- Centre receives sensory input
- process, analyse, store information initiate
motor responses(
- Initiate and control all voluntary actions( walking,
talking).
Cerebral cortex

- Outer region of cerebrum

- is folded to increase surface area
- directs voluntary muscle movement
- responsible for mental abilities
(e.g. : learning, memorising, language skills,
speech, imagination etc)
4) Hypothalamus

- important in homeostasis regulation

- control centre of the endocrine system

(produce hormones)

- hypothalamus controls the release of

hormones from pituitary gland
5) Pituitary gland

- secretes hormones that influence other

endocrine glands

- Master of endocrine glands

6) Thalamus

- It serves as a relay station for impulses traveling

to and from the spinal cord, brain stem,
cerebellum and cerebrum
- directing sensory input to the appropriate place in
the cerebral cortex.
- Sensory input from the body, the eyes, ears and
other senses (except for smell) pass through the
thalamus.
 3.2.3 Spinal Cord

- Within the vertebral column

- surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid

(absorb shock, provide nutrients)
Spinal cord Central
canal
Dorsal
White root
matter ganglion
Dorsal
root
Grey matter
Ventral
root

Spinal
Vertebra nerve

Intervertebral
disc
 Grey matter
White matter

Centre canal

Dorsal root
Ganglion
 3.2.3 Spinal Cord

- Function:
a) connects the peripheral nervous system to the
brain.
b) Acts as a minor integrating centre in producing
simple reflex responses.
example: withdrawal of the hand from a hot
object.
- Nerve cells
3.2.4 The Neurones
 3.2.4 The Neurones

Afferent neurones (Sensory neurones)

Efferent neurones (Motor neurones)

Interneurones
Motor
neurone

Sensory
neurone
Afferent neurones (Sensory neurones)
- Carry sensory information from receptor cells to
CNS

Efferent neurones (Motor neurones)

- Carry information from CNS to effectors
(e.g. muscle, glands)
Interneurones

Transmit nerve impulses :

- Between afferent & efferent neurones
- from 1 side of spinal cord to other side
- from brain to spinal cord or spinal cord to brain
- respond to integrative signals (process, analyse
information)
The Part of Typical Neurone

Dendrites

- Receive information from other neurones / from

external environment
- conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body
 Axon

- Extend outward from cell body

- conducts nerve impulses away from cell
body

Cell body

- Has nucleus & other organelles

 Myelin sheath

- Protects & insulates axons

- Electrical insulator
- speed up transmission of the nerve impulses

Synaptic terminals

- At the end of each axon

- swelling at the branched ends of axons
- transmit impulses to effectors (e.g. muscle cells,
gland cells) or to the dendrites of another neurone
 Afferent neurones
Receptors
(sensory neurones)

CNS
Effectors (interneurones)
(muscle, glands)

Efferent neurones
(motor neurones)
 3.2.5 The transmission of information
across synapses
-Synapse : the site where two neurones or a
neurone and an effector cell communicate.

-Synaptic cleft: space which separates the

synaptic terminal from the dendrite of a
receiving neurone, muscle cell or a gland
cell.
 3.2.5 The transmission of information
across synapses

Presynaptic Synaptic vesicles

membrane release neurotransmitters
Nerve
impulses
Synaptic cleft

Electrical signal
is generated Neurotransmitters diffuse
across synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters bind to receptors

on the postsynaptic membrane
The transmission of information across synapses :

Electrical signals chemical signals (in form of

neurotransmitters)
active transport (require energy generated by

mitochondria in synaptic terminals)

neurotransmitters is broken down by enzymes /

taken up again by presynaptic membrane after

relay its message
reconversion of chemical signals electrical

signals at postsynaptic membrane

Some examples of neurotransmitters :

Acetylcholine
Noradrenaline
Serotonin
Dopamine
The function of synapses :

Facilitate the transmission of nerve impulses in

One direction
(only presynaptic membrane can discharge
neurotransmitters)
(only postsynaptic membrane can receive a
chemical signal receptors present)
 Peripheral nervous system(PNS)
- transmit responses( voluntary/ involuntary actions)
from the CNS to the rest of body.
-Transmit signals to CNS for processing.
 Peripheral nervous system

Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

system system

Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

Integrated
Integrated Integrated
Medulla
Cerebral Spinal cord oblongata
cortex
hypothalamus
Example
Example
Reading, Reflex Regulate regulate
walking actions internal Internal body
environment processes
3.2.6 (A) Voluntary Action Of The Skeletal
Muscles
- Under conscious control (e.g. walking)
- controlled by cerebral cortex of the cerebrum

Sensory
Stimulus Receptor (afferent )
neurone
Interneurone
(Cerebrum)
Effectors Motor
Response
(muscles) (efferent)
neurone
3.2.6 (B) Involuntary Action
- Immediate action
- cannot be controlled by conscious mind
-Involve skeletal muscle and smooth muscle
- example
Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle

Knee-jerk response Heart beating,

Regulation of blood
pressure
 (c) Reflex action and reflex arc
-Reflex action: rapid response which is obtained
automatically without conscious thought.
-Example:
a) Rapid and automatic withdrawal of hand when
touches a hot/sharp object.
b) Automatic closing of the eyes when an insects fly
towards the eye.
c) The knee-jerk reflex.
 (c) Reflex action and reflex arc
-Reflex arc: The pathway of a transmission of nerve
impulse which produces a reflex action.
- Reflex action involve the brain and cranial nerve:
cranial reflex
Example: blinking and swallowing.
 Tendon below the Stretch receptor in the
knee cap (patella) is quadriceps muscles is
tapped stimulated

The Knee-jerk /
Patellar Reflex Sensory neurones

(to test the

proper
Motor neurones
functioning of
spinal cord)
The leg jerks Leg muscles
forward (quadriceps muscle)
(effectors) contract
The hand touches Pain receptors are
a sharp pin stimulated

Sensory neurones
Example of
reflex arc Interneurones
(spinal cord)

Motor neurones

The hand Arm muscles

withdraws to (effectors) contract
prevent injure
 Autonomic Nervous System
(control involuntary action)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division division

increase heartbeat
slow down heartbeat
increase breathing rate
lower breathing rate
increase blood pressure
lower blood pressure
slow down peristalsis
speed up peristalsis
dilates iris muscle (pupil)
contract iris muscle (pupil)
increase sweating
decrease sweating
erector muscle in
erector muscle in
skin contract
skin relaxes
3.2.8 Diseases of The Nervous System

1) Parkinsons disease
- disorder of CNS
- victims around age of 60 years onwards
- affects muscular movement
- cause trembling of arms, jaws, legs, face
- difficulty in maintaining normal postures
2) Alzheimers disease
- neurological disorder
- victims around age of 60 years onwards
- loss of reasoning
- victims become confused, forgetful, lose ability
to read, write, eat, walk, talk.
3) Poliomyelitis
- caused by an infection of nerves by the
poliovirus.
- lead to paralysis
- usually occur during childhood
- often, the grey matter of spinal cord is
destroyed.
3.3 The Role of Hormones In
Humans
-Hormone
- an organic chemical compound
- produced by endocrine gland
- is transported by blood
- to its target organ
- to obtain a certain response
3.3.1 Endocrine System

- Endocrine glands (ductless) secrete hormones

into bloodstream
- hormones are transported in the blood
- specific target cells receive hormones
- hormones bind with the receptors on the plasma
membrane of target cells
 Target cells
Blood vessel Receptor

Hormones

Not Target
cells

Secreting cell
 3.3.2 Human Endocrine System

Functions of Hormones

Reproduction Growth Homeostasis

Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) Insulin
Luteinising hormone Growth hormone Glucagon
(LH) Thyroid-stimulating Antidiuretic
Oestrogen Hormone hormone
Progesterone Thyroxine Adrenaline
Testosterone
 The Differences Between Nervous System & Endocrine System

Nervous System Endocrine System

Voluntary & Involuntary Controls Involuntary actions

actions

Electrical signals Signal Chemical signals

(impulses) conducted (hormones)

Via neurones Message Via bloodstream

conveyed

Specific locations Messages Various destinations

are carried
to
Responses
Temporary /effects Long-lasting
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland
 (ii) Regulation of Hormone Secretion By signal from
nervous system
Hormones released by pituitary gland

ADH & Oxytocin in Hypothalamic releasing &

posterior pituitary gland inhibiting hormones in
anterior pituitary gland

ADH Oxytocin

Kidneys Uterine muscles

ACTH TSH FSH & LH Growth Prolactin

hormone
Adrenal Thyroid Ovaries, Mammary
Bones,
cortex gland testes gland
tissues
The Human
Anterior Endocrine
Pituitary GlandGlands, Their Functions & The Hormone
Secreted
Hormones released Target tissues / Functions
organs
Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid gland Stimulate thyroid gland
hormone (TSH) release thyroxine
Follicle-stimulating Gonads Stimulate development of
hormone (FSH) follicle in ovaries
Luteinsing hormone Gonads Stimulate ovulation,
(LH) development of corpus luteum

Adrenocorticotrophic Adrenal glands Stimulate adrenal cortex

hormone (ACTH) release hormones

Growth hormone (GH) Soft tissues, Stimulate growth, protein

bones synthesis

Prolactin (PRL) Mammary glands Stimulate milk synthesis

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Hormones released Target tissues / Functions

organs
Stimulate water
Antidiuretic hormone Kidneys reabsorption by the renal
(ADH) tubules in kidneys

Stimulate contraction of
Oxytocin Uterus uterine muscle during
childbirth
Mammary glands
Stimulate release of milk
from mammary glands
 Raise blood calcium level

Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid Gland

Hormone released Target tissues / Functions

organs
- Increase metabolic rates
Thyroxine All tissues - increase body temperature
- regulate growth &
development
 Adrenal Gland

Hormone released Target tissues / Functions

organs
Cortex Kidneys Increase reabsorption of
Aldosterone mineral salts

Medulla Cardiac & other - Increase level of sugar &

Adrenaline & muscles fatty acid in blood
noradrenaline - increase heart beat &
breathing rate
- increase metabolic rate &
constrict blood vessels
 Pancreas

Hormones released Target tissues / Functions

organs

Insulin Liver, muscles, - Decrease blood glucose

adipose tissues level
- Conversion of glucose into
glycogen
Glucagon Liver, muscles,
adipose tissues - Increase blood glucose level
- conversion of glycogen into
glucose
 Ovaries

Hormone released Target tissues / Functions

organs

Oestrogen Gonads, skin, - Stimulate development of

muscles, bones female secondary sexual
characteristics
- maturation of ovaries
- repair of uterine lining

Progesterone Gonads - stimulate the development

of uterine lining & formation
of placenta
- inhibit ovulation
 Testes

Hormone released Target tissues / Functions

organs

Androgen Gonads, skin, - Stimulate the development

(e.g. testosterone ) muscles, bones of male secondary sexual
characteristics &
spermatogenesis
 3.3.3 Regulation of Hormone Secretion

Hormones secretion
is regulated by

The level of
Signals from Specific substances
nervous system In the body
Other
hormones
 (i) The Regulation of Hormone Secretion By Signals
from Nervous System

- Secretion of some hormones is initiated by nerve

impulses.
- Example: secretion of adrenaline will be increased
when adrenal gland receive nerve impulses
sympathetic nervous system.
Pituitary Gland
 Neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus

ADH & Oxytocin Hypothalamic releasing hormones

Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones
Pass through
Carried into
axons
bloodstream
Stored in the
synaptic terminals Anterior pituitary gland
of the
posterior pituitary gland
Hypothalamic releasing hormones
stimulate secretion of anterior
pituitary hormones
ADH & Oxytocin are Hypothalamic inhibiting hormone
secreted into bloodstream suppress secretion of anterior
pituitary hormones
The regulation of hormone secretion by other hormones

Inhibit
release of Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH)
TRH
Transported into
Anterior pituitary gland
TRH stimulates

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

TSH stimulates
Thyroxine hormones
are secreted in thyroid gland
Negative Feedback Mechanism In Hormone Regulation

Hypothalamus

Secretes
Inhibit
release of Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH)
TRH
Transported into
Anterior pituitary gland
Inhibit
TRH stimulates release of
TSH
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

TSH stimulates
Thyroxine hormones
are secreted in thyroid gland
When [thyroxine] exceeds a
certain level
(iii) Regulation of Hormone Secretion By the level of
Specific Substances in Blood

-example: Insulin and glucagon

-Secretion of these hormones is controlled
by the blood glucose level in the blood.
-Blood glucose high, more insulin
-Blood glucose low, more???
(coordination involving both the nervous system and the endocrine
system
Fight or Flight Situation Example: come across with a robber

Nervous system + endocrine system

Nerve impulses from sympathetic nervous system to

adrenal glands
Stimulate

Adrenaline & noradrenaline hormones are secreted

Cause
a) Breathing rate: more O2
b) Energy production
c) Blood pressure
d) Glycogen convert into glucose
e) Heartbeat rate: pump and transport O2 and glucose rapidly
f) Dilation of arterioles of muscle and brain : make quick decision & act
 3.3.4 The Effects of Imbalanced Hormone Production

Hormones Over secretion Under secretion

- During childhood - retards bones growth

gigantism (abnormal Dwarfism
increase in the length of
bones)
Growth - organs fail to grow; the
hormone size of body like a child
- during adulthood
acromegaly (bones, feet, - genetically engineered
hands, cheeks, jaws growth hormones can be
thicken & enlarge in other given
tissues)
Hormone Over secretion Under secretion
- Hyperthyroidism - Hypothyroidism

- During child growth, cause -During childhood, cause

gigantism mental retardation
cretinism
Thyroxine - Increase in metabolic rate
- in adulthood
- Excessive sweating, myxedema
nervousness, rapid heart
rate, weight loss
- Symptoms : slow heart
rate, low body temperature,
- thyroid gland grows & tendency to gain weight
enlarged goitre
- Lack of iodine, reduces
- one cause of goitre is production of thyroxine
iodine deficiency
Thyroid gland enlargement
Hormone Over secretion Under secretion

- Cause hypoglycaemia - Diabetes mellitus

(abnormally low level of
glucose in blood) - high level of glucose in
Insulin blood
- symptoms : fatigue,
mental confusion, - symptoms : increased
nervousness, fainting frequency of urination,
spells, headaches excessive thirst, numbness
in feet, ankles & legs, poor
- can lead to vision, slow healing of
unconsciousness wounds
Hormone Over secretion Under secretion

- Cause diabetes insipidus

-High retention of water in
the body - excretes a large amount of
water
Antidiuretic -Much water will be
hormone reabsorbed back by the - thirsty all the time, often
(ADH) kidney and returned to want to drink
blood increase in
blood volume blood
pressure decrease. - may die of dehydration
(too much water lost in
urine) if deprived of water
3.4 Homeostasis in Humans
Homeostasis = maintenance of constant internal
environment

- Internal environment = interstitial fluid & blood

plasma
Physical factors (e.g. body temperature, blood
pressure, osmotic pressure)
Chemical factors (e.g. salt & sugar level, partial
pressure of O2 & CO2)
 3.4.1 The Excretory System

Kidneys
regulate water & salt balance
regulate osmotic pressure & ionic level in

blood
excrete waste products (urea, creatinine, uric

acid, toxins, drugs)

regulate blood pH
The Human Kidney

- Filter blood
- form urine
- urine = a fluid containing water, urea,
other dissolved wastes, some excess

nutrients
 (outer region)

(inner region)

Medulla

Cortex

Pelvis
 The Nephron

- Functional unit of kidney

- each kidney consists of ~ one million nephrons
- consists of 3 major parts :
Glomerulus

Bowmans capsule

Renal tubule :

Proximal convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
 5

1
6
2

7
8
3 9
4 10
 3.4.2 Formation Of Urine

3 processes

Ultrafiltration
Reabsorption
Secretion
 (A) Ultrafiltration
- Occurs in Bowmans capsule

- podocytes (cells in the inner wall of Bowmans

capsule) & glomerulus endothelium filtration
membrane

- Filtration membrane allows molecules smaller than

a certain size to filter into the capsular space
 Podocytes

Podocytes = special cells on the inner wall of

Bowmans capsule
- blood enters glomerulus under high pressure

fluid is forced out from the glomerulus capillaries

into the capsular spaces through the filtration

membrane
- Fluid enters into capsular space is called
glomerular filtrate
## high blood pressure is maintained in
glomerulus because afferent arteriole has
larger diameter than efferent arteriole
Afferent arteriole
(larger diameter)
(smaller diameter)

Capsular
at e space
r
la r f it
e r u
l o m
G Bowmans
 Glomerular filtrate

Water Amino
acid
Glucose Urea

Mineral
salt
 (B) Reabsorption

1) In the proximal convoluted tubule

- Na+ ions, glucose, amino acids are reabsorbed
into blood capillaries by active transport
- abundance of mitochondria generate ATP
(for active transport)
- water is reabsorbed into blood capillaries by
osmosis
 (B) Reabsorption

2) In the Loop of Henle

- water , NaCl are reabsorbed into blood
capillaries

3) In the distal convoluted tubule

- more water, NaCl are reabsorbed into blood
capillaries
- filtrate contains high [urea]
 (B) Reabsorption

4) In the collecting duct

- very little salt left
- ~ 99% water has been reabsorbed into
bloodstream
- ~ 1% of water in the filtrate leaves the body as
urine
- some urea (small molecular size) diffuse out into
surrounding fluid & blood
5) After leaving collecting duct
- urine flows down ureter bladder urethra
excreted
- urine contains excess water, salts, urea, uric acid,
creatinine
Reabsorption Proximal Loop of Distal Collecting
(into convoluted Henle convoluted duct
bloodstream) tubule tubule
Water 65% 15% 10 15 % 5%

Glucose 100% 0% 0% 0%

Amino acids 100% 0% 0% 0%

Na+ 65% 20 30 % 5% 14%

Cl- 50% 35% 5% -

Urea 50% - - Variable

amount
HCO3- 80 90 % 10 20 % - Variable
amount
 (C)Secretion
Secretion = process in which waste & excess
substances that are secreted from the
blood into the renal tubule
- takes place especially active in distal
convoluted tubule
- secreted substances :
e.g. H+, K+, NH3, urea, creatinine, toxins,
certain drugs
- Occurs by passive diffusion and active transport.
 (C) Secretion

- Help to
eliminate wastes
regulate ions level in blood
(e.g. when blood pH too low, more
H+ ions are secreted)
 To bladder
Key :
Filtra
te
Ultrafiltrat Reabsorpti Secretion
ion on
 3.4.3 Negative Feedback Mechanism

Excess value rises Correct

above normal set-point mechanism

Negati
ve
feedba
Normal value ck Normal value
Negati
ve
feedba
Deficiency value drops Correct
ck
below normal set-point mechanism
 The Role of Kidneys in Homeostasis

Osmoregulation = the process of maintaining water

content of the blood at a
constant level
- Regulating volume of urine production & excretion
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) responsible for
osmoregulation
- osmoreceptor cells in hypothalamus detect the
blood osmotic pressure
 Too much water in body
Urine becomes more dilute,
lighter in colour
Blood osmotic pressure drops
below normal range
Normal range

Negative feedback mechanism

Osmoreceptor cells
less stimulated Blood osmotic pressure

In osmoregulation
increase

Pituitary gland
less stimulated [solutes] in blood increase

Less ADH is secreted

Water content in body falls
More aldosteron is secreted

Less water is reabsorbed

Distal convoluted tubule
More mineral salt is
& collecting duct less
reabsorbed
permeable to water
 Too little water in body Urine becomes more
concentrated,
Blood osmotic pressure increase darker in colour
above normal range
Normal range

Negative feedback mechanism

Osmoreceptor cells
are stimulated Blood osmotic pressure

In osmoregulation
decrease

Pituitary gland
is stimulated [solutes] in blood decrease

More ADH is secreted Water content in body increase

Distal convoluted tubule More water is reabsorbed

& collecting duct more
permeable to water
Haemodialysis = process of filtering blood by using
artificial means that replaces
the functions of a failed kidney

- Dialysis patients require 3 treatments per week

- each treatment takes about 6 hours
 The Process of Dialysis In A Haemodialyser (Machine)
Blood from Semi-permeable
artery membrane
Dialysis
solution
exits
Toxins

Dialysis
solution

Required
substances

Dialysis
solution
enters
Filtered blood Haemodialyser
re-enters blood vessels (machine)
 The Regulation of Blood Sugar Level

Normal blood glucose Glycogen glucose

~75 110 mg/100ml
Glycogen glucose
Liver
blood glucose Muscle
Lipid fatty acids
cells
Adipose
Islet cells in pancreas tissue
Adipose Hormone glucagon
tissue
Hormone insulin
Use up glucose
glucose is used to Islet cells in pancreas
Muscle form fat
Liver
cells blood glucose
Use up glucose Use up glucose
glucose glycogen glucose glycogen
store glycogen Normal blood glucose
store glycogen
~75 110 mg/100ml
build protein
 The Regulation of Blood Sugar Level

Normal blood glucose Glycogen glucose

~75 110 mg/100ml
Fat glucose
blood glucose rate of respiration
decreases
Islet cells in pancreas
Hormone glucagon
Hormone insulin
glucose is converted Islet cells in pancreas
to form fat
blood glucose
Use up glucose
Rate of respiration
glucose glycogen increased Normal blood glucose
~75 110 mg/100ml
 The Regulation of Body temperature
Internal T rises
Detected by above
Thermoregulatory
thermoreceptors normal set point
centre in
hypothalamus in the
hypothalamus &
skin

rector muscle in the skin relax. Smooth muscle around

Lower skin hair, arterioles relax (Vasodilation
reduce insulation. Increase heat loss.

Skeletal muscles not stimulated Sweat glands secrete more swea

No shivering. Heat lost through evaporation.

Adrenal & thyroid glands less

stimulated.
Metabolic rate is low,
no excess heat is generated.
 The Regulation of Body temperature
Internal T drops
Detected by below
Thermoregulatory
thermoreceptors normal set point
centre in
hypothalamus in the
hypothalamus &
skin

ector muscle in the skin contract Smooth muscle around

Raise skin hair , increase arterioles contract (Vasoconstricti
insulation, reduce heat lost Reduce heat loss.

Skeletal muscles are stimulated Sweat glands not stimulated.

Shivering, heat is generated. Heat is conserved.

Adrenal & thyroid glands are stimulated.

Secrete more adrenaline & thyroxine.
Increase metabolic rate ,
more heat is generated.
 3.5 Types of drugs & their effects on the body

- - Increase CNS activity

- e.g. cocaine
Stimulants - block removal of pleasure-inducin
neurotransmitters
- - Cause temporary euphori

- - Decrease CNS activity

- e.g. tranquilisers, alcohol
Depressants - slow down transmission of nerve imp
- Alcohol block release of ADH
reduce water reabsorption
 3.5 Types of drugs & their effects on the body

- e.g. LSD (D-lysergic acid diet

Hallucinogens - cause hallucinate (see, hear,
things that do not exist

- e.g. heroin, morphine

- - similar to the struct
original neurotransmitters
receptor sites.
Narcotics - Induce feeling of euphoria,
block pain signals, slow dow
brain function
3.6 Plant Hormones
3.6.1 Introduction

- Growth of shoot towards sunlight positive phototropism

- Growth of root away from sunlight negative
phototropism
- Growth of root towards gravity positive geotropism
- Growth of shoot away from the gravity negative
geotropism

Coleoptiles = shoot of plant seedling enclosed in a sheath

3.6.2 Types of plant hormones

(i) Auxins
- promote cell elongation
- produced in the apical meristem at the tips of shoots
- increase the rate of cell division; increase the length of
stem
 The role of auxins in phototropism

Sunlight
1 as control set
2 tip removed
3 5
2 4 3 tip is covered by
1
opaque cap (dark cap)
4 tip is covered by clear
caps (transparent to
light)
5 base is covered by
opaque shield
 Shaded side of
coleoptile
More auxins
Light build up on this
side cause a
greater cell
elongation (the
high rate of cell
division)
Illuminated side of
coleoptile
Less auxins build
up on this side less
cell elongation
Uniform
illumination
even distribution
of auxins
shoot grows Illumination from
straight upwards one direction
more auxins on
shaded side
shoot bending
towards the light
 Shoot grows towards light

Shoot grows straight upwards

Auxins cant diffuse through the mica.

Shoot grows towards the light.

Auxins diffuse into gelatin block.
 The role of auxins in geotropism

Shoot Root Shoot

A B Root

Auxins
A : Seed is buried underground.
Auxins is transported to the lower
sides of both the shoot & root.
B : Accumulated of auxins at
the lower side of the shoot
cause the cells elongate rapidly.
Shoot bends upwards.

C : Stem grows C : Accumulation of auxins

C inhibit elongation of root
upwards &
cells at lower part. Cells
straight up elongate more on the upper
part.
emerging from
Root bend downwards,
soil towards the light.
grows towards the gravity.
( Positive phototropism)
(Positive geotropism)
 Seedling turned on side

Positive Stem grows upwards,

phototropism Towards the light.
Root grows downwards,
Positive Towards the gravity;
geotropism away from the light
Roots bend
downwards, grow
towards the gravity.

Roots show positive

geotropism but
negative
phototropism.
Growth response of plant organs to applied auxins
% stimulation
Shoot

Concentration of
% inhibition

auxins (mg L -1)

Root

The [auxins] needed to stimulate maximum growth

of shoot inhibits root growth

The [auxins] needed to stimulate maximum growth

of root is too low to stimulate shoot growth

The use of hormones in agriculture

(i) Auxins
- Stimulate the growth of roots from plant cuttings.
- higher chance for survival when planted.
- stimulate parthenocarpy (formation of fruit without
fertilization) seedless
- as weed killers in plantations
The use of hormones in agriculture

(ii) Ethylene / Ethane (gaseous plant hormone)

- induce ripening of fruits
- stimulate production of cellulase hydrolyse cellulose
in plant cell walls making fruits soft
- promote breakdown of complex carbohydrates into
simpler sugar ripe fruit tastes sweeter
The use of hormones in agriculture

(iii) Gibberillin
- used to promote the germination of seeds
The use of hormones in agriculture

(iv) cytokinins
- promoting cell division and cell growth.
used together with auxins to promote germination and
growth.