Nivaldo J.

Tro
http://www.cengage.com/chemistry/tro

Tapan Kumar Lai

Chapter 8
Nuclear Chemistry

Vidyasagar Evening College

Mark Erickson Hartwick College
Radiation
The emission of energetic
particles
The study of radiation and
the processes that produce
it is called nuclear chemistry.
Unlike the chemistry we
have studied to this point,
nuclear chemistry often
results in one element
changing into another one.
Tragedy
April 26, 1986, 1:24 am
V.I. Lenin nuclear power
plant
Chernobyl, USSR
Explosions in reactor 4
31 immediate deaths, 230
hospitalizations,
countless exposures to
high-level radiation
The aftermath continues
to this day.
Chemistry
Chemistry as studied up to this point
Atomic and molecular changes involve electrons.
Atoms react to achieve a stable octet electron
configuration.

Nuclear chemistry
Atomic changes involve the nuclei.
Nuclei emit energetic particles we call radiation.
Becquerel
Discovered that his
paper-wrapped
photographic plate was
exposed by uranium-
containing crystals.
This disproved his
hypothesis linking
exposure to UV light with
phosphorescence.
But it revealed a brand-
new phenomenon that he
called the emission of
uranic rays.
Marie and Pierre Curie
Searched for the elements that produced the uranic rays
Discovered two new emitters of uranic rays; one was a new
element (polonium)
Radioactivity not the result of a chemical reaction
Since the rays were not unique to uranium, a new term was
proposed: radioactivity
Discovered radium as a result of its extreme radioactivity
Radioactivity
Characterized by Rutherford
The result of nuclear instability
Alpha Radiation
Composed of particles consisting of two protons and
two neutrons
Represented by the symbol for a helium nucleus
High ionizing power
Low penetrating power
Writing Nuclear Reaction Equations
Identify the type of nuclear reaction and the
particle(s) involved.
The sum of mass numbers and the sum of
the atomic numbers must balance on both
sides.
atomic mass numbers on each side must balance:

4 + 234 = 238

238
92
U 4
2
He + 234
Th
90

2 + 90 = 92 daughter nucleus

atomic numbers on each side must balance:

Concept Check 8.1
Identify the daughter nucleus from the alpha
decay of I-131
Concept Check 8.1 Solution
Alpha decay of I-131 results in the loss of a helium
nucleus and the formation of Sb-127 as the daughter
nucleus.

atomic mass numbers on each side must balance:

127 + 4 = 131

131
53
I 4
2
He + 127
51
Sb
51 + 2 = 53 daughter nucleus

atomic numbers on each side must balance:

Beta Radiation
Composed of particles consisting of energetic electrons
represented by the symbol .
Smaller than alpha particles, so more penetrating
But this also means less ionizing power
In beta decay, a neutron converts to a proton, emitting an
electron and increasing the atomic number by 1.
Concept Check 8.2
Identify the daughter nucleus from the beta
decay of C-14
Concept Check 8.2 Solution
Beta decay of C-14 involves the loss of an electron
from the nucleus. Like alpha decay, the atomic
numbers and atomic mass numbers from each side
must balance.

0 + 14 = 14

14
6
C 0
-1
e + 14
7
N
-1 + 7 = 6 daughter nucleus
Gamma Radiation
An energetic photon
emitted by an atomic
nucleus
Represented by the
symbol
Gamma rays are
electromagnetic
radiation, not matter.
Highest penetrating
power, lowest ionizing
power
Concept Check 8.3
Considering the three type of radiation, alpha,
beta, and gamma,
a)Order them according to increasing
penetrating power.
b)Order them in according to increasing
ionizing power.
Concept Check 8.3 Solution
Alpha particles are large and carry a 2+ charge,
therefore do not penetrate very far but have
tremendous ionizing power. Beta particles are high
energy electrons with 1 charge, therefore smaller and
have greater penetrating power and moderate ionizing
ability. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation and
not matter, therefore, have no mass or charge and
possess great penetrating power but low ionizing
ability.
a) Penetrating power: alpha < beta < gamma
b) Ionizing power: gamma < beta < alpha
Half-Life
The time required for half
of the nuclei in a sample to
decay
Concept Check 8.4
Radon-222 decays via alpha emission to Po-218 with a half-
life of 3.82 days. If a house initially contains 800. mg of
radon-222, and no new radon enters the house, how much
will be left in 15.3 days? How many alpha emissions would
have occurred within the house?
Concept Check 8.4a Solution
Initial amount of radon-222 (half-life of 3.82 days): 800. mg
(a) How much will be left after 15.3 days?
(b) How many alpha emissions occurred?
First determine how many half-lives have passed by dividing
the total time passed by the half-life:
15.3 days
= 4.00 half-lives
3.82 days /half-life

800. mg
1st half-life
400. mg
400. mg
2nd half-life
200. mg
200. mg
3rd half-life
100. mg
100. mg
4th half-life
50.0 mg left at the end of 15.3 days
Concept Check 8.4b Solution
(b) How many alpha emissions occurred in 15.3 days?
800. mg 50.0 mg (left) = 750. mg of radon-222 decayed.
Each decay of an atom of radon-222 is an alpha decay.

1 g Rn 1 mol Rn 6.02 10 23 atoms Rn

750. mg Rn
1000 mg Rn 222 g Rn mol Rn
= 2.03 10 21 atoms Rn decayed and also the number of alpha emissions
Nuclear Fission
General idea: If nuclei emit
particles to form lighter
elements, they might also
absorb particles to form
heavier elements.

The result would be a

synthetic element.
Nuclear Fission
Fermi hoped to make a synthetic element with atomic
number 93.
He detected beta emission following his neutron
bombardment of uranium.
Subsequent experiments by Hahn, Meitner, and Strassman
seemed to confirm Fermis work.
Nuclear Fission
Just before the outbreak of WWII,
Hahn, Meitner, and Strassman
reported that no heavier element was
detected; rather two lighter elements
were formed.
Previous nuclear processes had
always been incremental.
Contradicting all previous
experiments in nuclear physics, they
proposed a model for the fission of
uranium atoms based on absorption
of neutrons.
Large amounts of energy were also
emitted during fission.
Nuclear Fission
Weeks later, U-235 fission was proposed as the basis for
both a chain reaction and a bomb of inconceivable power.
Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard
Enrico Fermi and Leo
Szilard constructed
the first nuclear
reactor at the
University of Chicago;
they achieved a self-
sustaining, controlled
fission reaction lasting
4.5 minutes.
The Manhattan Project
The largest scientific endeavor of its time, the race to beat
Germany to the atomic bomb was code-named Manhattan
Project.
Collection and synthesis of fissionable fuel (U-235 and Pu-
239) were pursued at Oak Ridge, TN and Hanford, WA. J.
Robert Oppenheimer directed bomb design at Los Alamos,
NM.
Critical Mass: Fissionable Fuel
Lesser masses of fissionable material will not undergo self-
sustaining fission; too many neutrons are lost to the
surroundings instead of being absorbed by other U-235
nuclei.
After the successful controlled reaction, the goal became the
construction of a device where fission would spiral out of
control.
Atomic Bomb: Fat Man and Little Boy
Two designs were constructed
and a successful test carried
out on July 16, 1945. Two
atomic bombs (one uranium
and one plutonium) were
dropped on Japan only weeks
later.
Little Boy
Uranium
Cannon-like barrel
Fat Man
Plutonium
Squeezed by implosion
Nuclear Power
Nuclear reactors are
designed to produce a
controlled fission reaction.
Uranium rods are
interspersed with
control rods of neutron-
absorbing material,
usually boron or
cadmium.
Heat of fission boils water
to produce steam, which
turns the turbine to
produce electricity.
Nuclear vs. Coal-burning Power Plants
Nuclear Coal-burning
Uses 5 million lb. of
Uses 100 lb. of fuel per
fuel to produce an
day
equivalent amount of
Produces enough energy
electricity for a city of 1
million people
Does not produce air
pollution, greenhouse
gases, or acid rain
Problems include waste
disposal and accidents
Waste Disposal
Uranium oxide pellet fuel
assemblies are replaced with
fresh fuel every 18 months.
Most spent fuel is currently
stored on-site.
1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act
Established a program to
build an underground nuclear
waste repository
Yucca Mountain, NV is the
controversial site of this much-
delayed project.
Nuclear Accidents
Nuclear power plants cannot detonate like nuclear explosions.
Enriched uranium at 3% U-235 vs. 90% U-235
Three Mile Island: March 28, 1979
Chernobyl: April 26, 1986
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, March 11, 2011
Superior power plant design in the U.S. has meant no accidental
nuclear deaths; nevertheless public support for nuclear power is chilly.
Mass Defect
Mass defect is the difference between the experimentally
measured mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of
individually measured protons, neutrons, and electrons.

The missing mass was converted to energy when elements

form from constituent protons and neutrons.

This energy is related to the mass defect by Einsteins

equation E = mc2.
Nuclear Binding Energy
Einsteins equation E = mc2 represents the energy
that holds a nucleus together.

The highest values for this binding energy are for

elements with mass numbers close to 56.
Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear Binding Energy: Fission

The products have higher binding energy than the reactants; it follows that the products weigh
less.
The missing mass is converted to energy according to

E = mc2
This difference in binding energy is the source of the energy liberated in fission.
Fusion
In fusion, the nuclei of lighter elements are fused into heavier ones.
Like fission reactions, the products of fusion have higher nuclear
binding energies, so energy is released.
Fusion releases ten times more energy per gram than fission.
Fusion is responsible for the suns energy and is the basis of modern
nuclear weapons.
Controlled Fusion
Advantages
Potential for an almost limitless source of energy for
society
Less radioactive waste products
Naturally occurring deuterium in water is a reactant and
abundant.

Disadvantages/obstacles
High temperatures required and a lack of materials
available for containment
Current production methods consume more power than
they produce.
Radiation and Human Life
Radiation can destroy biological molecules.
Low-level alpha emitters present little danger externally, but
once ingested have access to internal organs.
Danger is usually overstated by the popular press.
rem: most common unit for measuring human exposure
Exposure, on average, per year, is 1/3 rem.
Possible Effects
The human body can repair itself
and suffer no adverse effects.
Abnormal growth can begin that
leads to cancerous tumors.
Damage of intestinal lining leads
to radiation sickness, hampering
the intake of nutrients and water.
Damage to the immune system
allows infection to go unchecked.
Genetic defects in offspring have
occurred in laboratory animals.
Radon
Radon is the major source of human radiation exposure.
Naturally occurring uranium deposits in the earth lead to the
collection of radon in residential basements.
Significance of radon as a health threat is controversial.
Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is created in the
upper atmosphere and
becomes incorporated in
living tissue at a constant
level, then drops after death.
The half-life of C-14 is 5730
years.
Levels of C-14 in carbon-
based artifacts are
compared to modern levels
as an age signature.
The Shroud of Turin analysis
determined the age of the
materials in the shroud.
Concept Check 8.5
A fossil has a carbon-14 content that is 12% of that
found in living organisms. Estimate the age of the
fossil.
Concept Check 8.5 Solution
A fossil has a carbon-14 content that is 12% of that
found in living organisms.

100% 50%
1st half-life
5730 years
50%
2nd half-life
25% 11460 years
25%
3rd half-life
12.5% 17190 years

After 3 half-lives (17190 years), 12.5% of the C-14

in the sample remains, therefore the sample is
slightly older than 17190 years old.
The Age of the Earth
U-238 is used to measure longer periods of time.

It decays to lead with a half-life of 4.5 109 years.

Lead levels in artifacts are used as an age signature.

Uranium to lead dating

Concept Check 8.6
A moon rock is found to contain 50% uranium and
50% lead. How old is the moon rock?
Concept Check 8.6 Solution
A moon rock is found to contain 50% uranium and
50% lead. How old is the moon rock?

100% 50%
1st half-life
4.5 109 years
50%
2nd half-life
25% 9.0 109 years
25%
3rd half-life
12.5% 1.35 109 years

After 1 half-life, the original amount of uranium will

be reduced to 50%, therefore, the rock is about 4.5
million years old.
Nuclear Medicine
Diagnosis
Radioactive elements
concentrate in specific areas of
interest in the body.
Gamma emitters will expose
photographic film, allowing
images of organs to be
recorded.
Therapy
Radiation can destroy
cancerous tumors.
Minimizing exposure of healthy
tissue is a challenge.
Chapter Summary
Molecular Concept Societal Impact
Radioactivity The discovery of radiation
ultimately led to the creation
Alpha radiation
of the first atomic bomb.
Beta radiation
Nuclear power is used
Gamma radiation widely throughout the
Half-life United States.

Fission
Carbon dating