University of Saskatchewan

Geological Engineering
GEOE 498.3

Introduction to Mineral Engineering

Lecture 9 Mineral Processing 2

 Lecture 9

Comminution Methods
Crushing
Grinding

Classification Methods
Hydrocyclone
Screening
 These course notes are a compilation of
work conducted by many people.
Notes for this lecture have been taken from
the following Edumine courses:
Grinding 1 Fundamentals
Grinding 2 Unit Operations
Grinding 3 Circuits
Gyratory crushing
The Mill Operating Resource 1
 Mineral Processing - Review

The goals of mineral processing are to:

separate economic mineral particles from

waste or gangue
subject minerals to processes in order to
concentrate them or to extract metals from
them

First step: comminution

Second step: classification
 What is comminution?

Comminution is another word for size

reduction. It is the process of breaking large
particles into small particles.
Objective: liberation
Review

We mine rocks but

we concentrate
minerals.
Gangue minerals
also important
Understanding
mineralogy allows
design of processes
Important for
feasibility studies
 Mineralogy determines recoverability
 Liberation

Mineralogy studies
include grain size
Determines particle size
to achieve liberation
Comminution equipment
choices determined by
liberation requirements
Particles can be: Liberation
Fully liberated

Partially liberated:
middlings

Gangue: waste

Degree of liberation :
percentage of a
mineral occurring as
free particles in
relation to the total
amount of that
mineral present in ore
 Liberation
Fractures can
occur at grain
boundaries or
across grains
depending on the
strength of the
grain boundaries.
 Liberation and Separation
To recover and concentrate
valuable minerals, product from the
size reduction step is separated
into two streams: valuable mineral
(concentrate), and gangue
(tailings).

Middlings are often recycled

internally. Flotation, magnetic
separation, and gravity methods
are typical separation processes.

Ideally, concentrate should contain

100% valuable minerals and tailings
should contain 100% gangue. In
reality, concentrate contains some
gangue and tailings contains some
valuable minerals.

Mineral processing combines

liberation and separation to
concentrate valuable minerals.
 Terminology
% Recovery:

The fraction of valuable metal present in the ore that refers

to the concentrate.

Calculated by dividing the amount of metal in the

concentrate by the amount of metal fed to the mill.
 Terminology

Grade:
Purity of the product. It is the percentage (by
mass) of a metal in the solids.

Maximum achievable grade depends on

chemical composition. Examples:

Copper grade of a chalcopyrite concentrate is

usually between 22% and 32%, vs. pure
chalcopyrite contains 34.6% copper.
Zinc concentrate is between 55% and 62% vs.
pure sphalerite is about 67% zinc.
 Liberation and Separation
Grade and recovery are
interdependent. In a well-
run separation unit, there is
a trade-off between grade
and recovery. If the grade of
a product increases,
recovery usually drops.

BUT Grade and recovery

can both increase when
liberation is improved.
By improving liberation, we
reduce the quantity of
middlings in which grains of
valuable mineral are locked
with gangue.
Grade and recovery targets
are adjusted to maximize
profits.
 Liberation and Separation

Particles can be
described as:
rounded
slabby
acicular
flaky
angular
Particle shape affects
processing. Usually
particles that are not
rounded are harder to
grind, to classify, and
to pump.
 Liberation and Separation

Density: calculate
by dividing its
mass by its volume
g/cc or kg/L or
tonne/m3

Specific gravity:
calculate by
dividing the
density of the
material by the
density of water.
 Liberation and Separation
When the particle does not have a regular shape, or when the sample contains
particles of mixed sizes, diameter is not an adequate measure.
Determine particle size by screen (sieve) analysis.
Screen is made of a woven wire mesh. The size of the screen is given by the
width of one opening, or by the number of openings in one linear inch.
Particle size reported in mesh size or in microns: 1000 microns (m) per
millimeter.
Example: A 65-mesh Tyler screen has 65 holes per inch, and each opening
measures 212 m,
 Liberation and Separation

Particle size
measurements are
used to determine the
extent of liberation.
They are also used to
evaluate equipment
performance.
Screen analysis is the
most common way of
measuring particle
size. Two common
references for particle
size measurements are
80% passing and %
passing a specific size.
 Liberation and Separation

From grinding onward, ore is

usually handled as a slurry.
Slurry = mixture of water and
ore particles, aka pulp.
The two most important
slurry properties are:
Density
Viscosity

Strictly speaking, slurry

density should refer to the
mass of the slurry per unit
volume.
However, in the mineral
processing industry, slurry
density is usually reported
as % solids by mass.
 Liberation and Separation

Slurry density can be

measured with a Marcy
pulp density scale. A
Marcy scale is a spring
balance fitted with a
one-litre container
Marcy scale converts
this true slurry density
(in kg / liter) to %
solids, given the
particle specific
gravity.
 Particle breakage
Rate of breakage, also referred to
as grinding kinetics, depends on
the type of crushing or grinding
equipment and on its operation

Small particles are more difficult

to break because for the same
mass many more particles must
be broken

a ten fold reduction in particle

size requires 1000 times more
breakage events to maintain the
rate of breakage).

Coarse - Impact breakage is a

violent fracture that results from
striking or compression.

Fines - Attrition breakage is the

result of abrasion and wear
caused by rubbing and chipping.
 Work index
Ore hardness refers to the ability
to withstand penetration and
deformation. It requires more
energy to crush or grind hard ores
than soft ores.

The work index is the most

common measure of ore hardness.
Ores that are difficult to grind have
a high work index.

The work index gives the electrical

energy required to grind one tonne
of ore to a specific size. The work
index is given in kilowatt-hours per
tonne of material ground.

Competency is a qualitative term

used to describe the structural
integrity of ore. If ore is highly
fractured or flawed, has poor
cohesion, crumbles easily, it is
said to not be competent.
 Beneficiation Terminology

Comminution: Reduction of particle size

Starts at mine with blasting

Two basic types of equipment used:

Crushing

Grinding
Comminution Equipment

Shaft
 Comminution

Primary
crushing is the
first stage in a
circuit that may
include
additional
stages of
crushing,
depending on
the type of
grinding mills
being used.
 Crushing

Extreme duty: high large unit pressures

Maintenance intensive: operated for 12-16
hours per 24 hour day
Downstream interruption avoided by
stockpiling crusher product
 Comminution
On the crushing stroke,
a lump of ore is
shattered and on the
opening stroke those
fragments that are
larger than the
discharge gap are
retained for further
crushing.
Those that are small
enough fall through and
are no longer available
to be broken.
In this way a process of
size classification takes
place simultaneously
with breakage in a
crusher.
 Spider Cap - A heavy steel cap that
Comminution Equipment
protects the top of the mainshaft.
Spider - is the steady rest (fulcrum) point
for the top of the mainshaft, constrains it
Mainshaft - moving part in a gyratory
crusher. It is massive so as to remain
rigid during the crushing process. With
the spider acting as the pivot (fulcrum) at
one end, the load in the middle, and the
effort applied at the other end, it acts as a Shaft
lever to apply high crushing forces.
Mantle - covering of abrasion resistant
steel that protects the mainshaft,
intended to wear.
Concaves - abrasion resistant steel
plates that protect the crusher top shell
bowl, intended to wear
Eccentric - A circular journal and
bushing where the bottom of the
mainshaft moves in a circle around the
crusher centerline.
Pinion - transfers motor power to the
mainshaft
Hydroset Piston - moves the main shaft
assembly up or down as oil is pumped
into or released from the cylinder.
 Comminution
Crusher sizing specified by feed opening size
Gape = largest feed size that a crusher will accept
Set = largest product size it will discharge, aka Open Size Setting
(OSS)
Throw = OSS - CSS
Typical reduction ratio is 6:1 to 8:1
 Comminution
Crushing action:
When a large piece is broken the fragments fall downward in the crusher
until they are again nipped and once more broken into smaller pieces
throw of the mantle gets larger as the particle moves down in the
chamber
demand for power, becomes greater as the center of gravity of the rock
mass moves downward in the crusher
 Choke feed:
Comminution
Counteract slippage by
maintaining a weight on top
of the rock in the crusher.
Promote crushing of
particles by other particles.
This reduces wear on mantle
and concaves, produces
more fines (finished
product), and increases the
effective reduction ratio.
Even out the power demand.
Maximize the machine's
capacity.
Choking: stoppage in the
downward flow of rock in the
crushing chamber.
 Comminution

Oversize:
Blocking: a single rock is
too big to enter the
crushing chamber
Bridging: two or more
rocks are small enough to
enter, but straddle the
opening to prevent each
other from falling in
Solutions:
hydraulic rock
breaker: jack
hammers the rock
into smaller pieces
Rock hook
lower the mantle with
the hydroset
 Comminution
Jaw crusher is a much simpler piece of equipment.
Its design utilizes box frame construction to allow it to handle
tougher ore
incorporates a flywheel to store energy
 Comminution

Gyratory crusher or a jaw crusher?

Similarities:
speeds are the same -- 100 to 200 revolutions per
minute
both break ore by compression
accept rock of up to sixty inches across, discharge
down to 7 inches

Differences:
gyratory crusher - can be fed from two sides, handle
ore that tends to slab, more energy efficient
jaw crusher smaller makes it a logical choice for
underground, can be used on tougher ores
 Comminution
Primary/Secondary Crusher
Circuit:
Standard installation in a
truck haulage operation
consists of the stone box,
gyratory crusher, surge
pocket, and feeder
Grizzly screen: removes fines
from the crusher feed.
consists of heavy steel bars
deal with coarse rock.
Secondary crushing is
usually done in a separate
crushing and screening plant
utilizing cone crushers and
vibrating screens
Typically used ahead of rod
or ball grinding mills since
these will not accept feed
greater than 2.5 cm (1 inch)
size range
 Comminution
Secondary and tertiary crushing
circuits: purpose is to reduce the
size of ore to a uniform size,
usually +/- 1 cm ( 3/8" ).

Cone crusher:

The crushing head rotates in the

bowl with an eccentric motion.
As the head approaches the
bowl, particles are nipped and
broken between the mantle and
the bowl liner.
Rotates at 500-600RPM, causes
hammering rather than
squeezing like in gyratory
very hard for ore to pass
through this zone without being
hit at least once
greater angle of the cone crusher
puts the pivot point below the
distributor plate
 Comminution
feed inlet: funnels ore into crusher.
feed distributing plate: spreads the feed
uniformly around the cavity.
bowl: forms the outside of the crusher
cavity. It can be moved up or down to
adjust gap between liner and mantle.
bowl liner: protects bowl from wear.
Mantle: protects cone from wear.
Cone (or head): forms the inside of the
crusher cavity. It is the moving part of the
crusher that effects crushing.
Spring release: protects the crusher from
damage due to tramp metal or other non-
crushable material.
Crusher cavity (aka feed pocket): the
space where the ore inside the crusher is
located.
Eccentric and Pinion: shaft that provides
the circular movement to the cone.
Bowl adjustment ring: acts as a giant nut
into which the bowl is screwed. The bowl
is raised or lowered by turning it (like a
screw).
 Comminution
Other crushing equipment:
High Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR)
Newer technology
Competes with SAG/AG mills
More energy efficient
 Comminution
Other crushing equipment:
Granulator (hammer mill)
Minimize fines creation
Typically used on salt, potash, coal
Discharge screen determines product size
 Comminution
May be open or closed circuit
Generally, the harder the ore, the more crushing stages
Closed circuit ensures uniform size
 Dust collection required!
Ancillary Equipment

Crushing produces very fine dust, can

be inhaled and presents a hazard.
Dust Enclosures - confined where it is
produced so it can be withdrawn.
Ducting - conveys the dust laden air to
the dust extraction equipment.
Dry Cyclone - extracts coarse dust
particles from the air by centrifugal
force - effective when used to pre-treat
Filter - bags that present a physical
barrier to the dust particles. As air is
passed through, particulates adhere to
the cloth - periodic cleaning required.
Wet Scrubber - passes contaminated air
through water sprays. The dust
particles adhere onto the fine water
droplets, forming slurry with the dust.
Electrostatic Precipitator - passes the
contaminated air through an electric
field. The particulates become
electrically charged and are drawn to an
electrode of opposite charge. The
collector must be periodically cleaned.
Water is typically used, forming slurry.
Slurry Disposal - Slurried dust is
collected in sumps and pumped to the
wet grinding circuit.
Fans - draws air into the collection
system and through the dust extraction
equipment. Cleaned air passes through
fan and discharged.
 Ancillary Equipment

Stockpiles are used to store ore before further processing.

Buffer feed rate variations from upstream operations
can be on a pad, which is typical for coarse ores
bins (silos), typical for fine ores.
 Ancillary Equipment

Feeders: introduce material at a controlled rate.

Apron feeder - most common for run-of mine / crushed ore
Pan feeder aka hydra-stroke
Typically located under stockpiles
 Ancillary Equipment

Screw or vibratory feeder for finer material

Usually fines stored in bins
 Ancillary Equipment
Belt conveyor: moves bulk solids from one area to another.
Keep away from a running conveyor!
 Comminution

Tramp metal is a serious

problem in crushing
circuits.
One of the most serious
is crusher plugging
Can damage machinery
Common practice to put
a belt magnet over the
crusher feed conveyor
belt
Also may place a metal
detector after the primary
crusher.
 Tumbling mills

Grinding is usually wet, vs. crushing is usually dry

The four basic types of tumbling mills are classified by the
type of grinding media used. They are:
rod mills
ball mills
autogenous (AG) mills
semi-autogenous (SAG) mills
AG and SAG mills are used to grind very coarse material
(up to 30 cm). Rod mills are used for material up to 3 cm. Ball
mills are used for fine grinding. They are often preceded by an
AG, SAG or rod mill.
 Comminution

AG/SAG mills accept a

coarser feed than do rod/ball
mills.
Typical AG/SAG feed particle
sizes range up to 30 cm (12
inches) which corresponds
with the product size of
primary crushing.
They do require primary
crushing so that the
randomly sized run-of-mine
ore is reduced to a uniformly
distributed feed size
acceptable to the AG/SAG
mill.
AG/SAG circuits do not
require secondary and
tertiary crushing stages
between primary crushing
and grinding.
 Comminution
Motion in a tumbling mill

Cascading: produces attrition

breakage which leads to fine
particle grinding.

Cataracting: produces impact

breakage which leads to coarse
particle grinding.

As ore particles become smaller

they become less susceptible to
breakage by impact; this means
that ore must be reduced by
attrition

Speed: critical speed is when the

grinding media are pinned to the
shell by centrifugal force

Normally, mill speed is between

55% and 80% of critical speed. Mill
speed is usually fixed, but some
mills have variable speed drives.
 Comminution
Feed chute: introduces ore
into the mill. A seal between
the stationary feed chute and
the rotating mill prevents
leaking.
Lifters: promote the tumbling
action of grinding media.
Liners: protect the shell from
wear.
Shell: holds liners and lifters.
Trunnions: provide entry and
discharge points for slurry.
Usually lined with spiral
flights. Normally support the
mill.
Trommel screen: prevents
large rocks, tramp metal, or
grinding media from leaving
with the ground product.
Grinding media: loose objects
that move freely inside the
mill.
 Comminution
Drive assembly:

bull gear/ring gear: transmits the

motion of the pinion to the mill.
The mill rotates as the pinion
gear meshes with the bull gear
Trunnion bearings: support the
mill at either end.
Pinion bearings: support the
pinion and motor shaft.
Electric motor: supplies energy
to rotate the mill.
Motor shaft: transfers the energy
supplied by the motor to the
pinion.
Air clutch connects the motor
shaft to the pinion. The air clutch
protects the motor from overload
during startup: the motor is
brought up to full speed before
the clutch is engaged
Pinion gear: transfers the motion
of the shaft to the bull gear.
 Comminution
Lifters:

High profile promotes cataracting

and impact grinding, low profile
or beveled lifters promote
cascading and attrition grinding.

Lifter wear: grinding efficiency is

affected

rubber liner is typically used in

ball and SAG mills and is light,
long wearing, easily replaced and
quiet

steel liner is typically used in rod

mills where abrasion and impact
factors are high.

As liners wear out, the lifting

portion of the liner will be
reduced
 Comminution
Grinding media wear down.
Steel consumption is
somewhere between 0.2 kg and
1 kg of steel per tonne of mill
feed.

To maintain grinding efficiency,

new grinding media must be
added periodically. Mill power
and other factors are used to
determine when to add new
grinding media.

The rate of breakage inside a

mill is directly affected by the
size of the grinding media.
Grinding efficiency is poor if the
grinding media are too large or
too small for the ore.

small media offers more, but

lower energy, collisions per unit
of time than larger media.
 Comminution
Wet vs. dry grind
Because of the dust problems associated with grinding
solids (health, explosion, and fire hazard,
mechanical losses, etc), grinding is usually carried
out in water.
Presence of water in the product does not harm
subsequent separation processes, since most of
these operations are carried out in water.
Wet grinding advantageous - requires less power per
ton of material ground than dry grinding. Dry
grinding consumes more energy because the fine
particles adhere to the balls, forming a layer that
causes the solids to occasionally slide between the
balls without fracture.
The disadvantage of wet grinding, however, is that
there is more wear.
 Comminution

% Solids Optimization

Trade-off between:
increasing % solids to
maximize the number of
particles in the slurry thereby
increasing breakage events
decreasing % solids to
ensure flow through the mill
and grinding media collide
with high energy
Operating at the optimum %
solids can have a large
impact on grinding efficiency.
AG and SAG mills - 65% to
75% range provides enough
water flowing through the
mill to remove ground ore.
 Comminution

To design a circuit there are some factors that

have to be known:
the hardness of the ore
the tonnage to be processed
how fine the ore has to be ground

Work index: determined by the electrical output

(measured in Kilowatt Hours consumed)
required to reduce one short ton (2000 lb.) of
ore to the point that 80% will pass through a
100 micron screen.
 Comminution

Energy input:

Comminution
is generally
most energy
intensive
circuit

Exponentially
higher energy
input as grind
becomes finer
 Comminution
Principles of operation of a
tumbling mill:

motion of material inside a mill

is described in terms of the
changes in center of gravity.

These changes affect torque

and the power required to keep
the mill turning.

Torque: The distance, or arm, is

measured from the point where
the force is applied, in this case,
the center of gravity of the load,
to the mill center line.

Power is torque multiplied by

angular velocity
 Comminution

Autogenous and Semi-

Autogenous Grinding
mills

fed directly into the

mill from either the
primary crusher or the
mine itself

In a (semi-)autogenous
mill the diameter is
greater than the
length. The diameter
can be as much as 11
m (36')
 AG vs. SAG

Autogenous self-breaking
AG mill fully autogenous
SAG mill semi-autogenous
AG and SAG mills, coarse particles (ideally about 20 % of
10 cm to 25 cm) are very important since they are part of
the grinding media

In SAG mills large balls (10 cm to 15 cm) are added

(typically 6 to 12 % volume loading) to enhance the
grinding action, especially for critical sized material.

Other common option is to combine AG mill with screens

and cone crushers to break critical size in the circuit
 Comminution

AG/SAG:
grate discharge assembly
serves two purposes:
prevent coarse
material from leaving
the mill
"pump" slurry out of
the mill.

Grate sections: prevent

coarse material from
leaving the mill while
letting fine slurry pass
through

Pulp lifters: carry slurry

from the grate to the cone
as the mill turns. Slurry
leaves the mill by this
pumping action.
 Comminution

Inside a SAG/AG mill

 Comminution

AG and SAG Mill Overload

Potential for material to

accumulate in the mill due to the
grate discharge.

If there is too much material in

the mill, the mill will not grind
properly, the load will increase
further

To avoid this situation mill power

and mill load are monitored.

Stopping the feed for a few

minutes is a quick method to
check if the mill is an overload
condition. If power increases,
then the mill had been
overloaded.
 Comminution
Critical Size

In a grate discharge mill

there can be a buildup of
what is known as critical
size material (typically 2.5
cm to 7.5 cm).
The rate of breakage of
critical size is not fast
enough and causes buildup.
In ball mills this occurs for
material that is too large for
the balls.
In AG and SAG mills it
occurs for material that is
too small to act as grinding
media but is too large to be
ground at a sufficient rate.
 Comminution
Rod mill:
used to grind the product from a crushing circuit (typical particle size of
3 cm) and grinds it to a size fine enough for a ball mill to handle (0.5 cm).
grinding takes place preferentially on coarser particles
produce less fines than ball mills
Media: steel rods almost as long as the mill and can weigh 400- 600 lbs
 Comminution
Ball mill :

Takes the product from a rod mill or AG/SAG circuit (typical particle size of 0.5
cm and finer)

grinds it to a finer size (0.1 cm or finer) usually final size.

usually connected to a classifier to form a closed circuit - coarse particles are

recycled to the mill for further grinding
 Comminution

Other grinding
equipment:
Ultra fine grinding
uses internal stirrer
Tower mill vertical
cylinder, small media

Isamill ultra high

intensity mixing
 Comminution

Operating a grinding
circuit

the most important

areas to monitor are ...

the tonnage coming into

the circuit

the grind leaving the

circuit
 Beneficiation Terminology

Classification : Separation based on particle size

Behavior affected by size, shape, and density of the
particles
Two common types of classifiers:
Screens - mechanical sorting
Generally for larger particles
Stationary or vibratory
Wet or dry feed

Hydrocyclones centrifugal force

Generally smaller particles (final sizing)
Slurry feed
 Classification

Classification is the process

of separating a mixture
containing particles of
different sizes into two
streams: coarse and fine
particles.

Perfect classifier: all coarse

particles report to the coarse
stream, and all fine particles
report to the fine stream. The
line that separates the two is
called the cut size.

In practice, classification
efficiency is poorer. Some
fine particles leave with the
coarse stream and some
coarse particles leave with
the fine stream.
 Classification

Partition Curve

When classification is not

perfect, the cut size
represents the size at which
particles have an equal
chance of going to either the
underflow or overflow.

Sharpness of separation:
indicated by the slope of the
curve. For a perfect classifier,
the line is vertical. When
sharpness of separation is
poor, the line is closer to
horizontal.

Bypass: the percentage of

fine particles brought into the
underflow by water.
Classification Equipment
 Screens

Separates the feed into

two or more streams,
each containing a
different size range of
particles.
Separation takes place by
letting fine particles fall
through openings in the
screen deck.
Screen shape:
Rectangular or slotted
openings offer more
open area and less
blinding for most ores.
However, square and
round openings produce
a higher sharpness of
separation.
 Grizzly Screen

Scalping: removing any

material that may slow
down production.
May be rock that is too
big for the equipment to
effectively handle
May be fine material that
is taking up valuable
space and will consume
precious energy if it is
handled further
some grizzlies are placed
on an incline, others flat
Slabby rock may sit on
top
 Vibratory Screen

The screen deck has openings to

let the smaller material flow
through it. Screen vibration
keeps coarse material moving on
the deck.
A screen can have several decks,
each with a different size
opening.

feed box: (aka feed pan)

distributes the feed across the
width of the screen.
Counter weight: balances the
screen weight to control
vibration more easily.
Springs: isolate the floor from
screen vibration.
Discharge lip: directs the flow
out of the screen.
Tensioning plates: keep the deck
secure.
 Classification
Design considerations:

Vibration: amplitude and

frequency - promotes
stratification
Screen load: bed of an
overloaded screen is too thick to
allow fine particles through
Screen slope: must be steep
enough to ensure that the
oversize solids will flow across
the deck
Area: capacity is proportional to
the screen width, while
efficiency is proportional to
screen length
Water sprays: used to clean
coarse particles and prevent
agglomerations of particles
 Classification

Other common screen

types:

Derrick screen:

Fine vibratory screen,

down to 200 mesh

Alternative to cyclones

Urethane construction

Beware holes in
screening!
 Classification

Other common screen

types:

Sieve bend (DSM):

Wedge wire screen
Static or vibratory
Typically used for
scalping trash from
cyclone or gravity
concentrator feed
1-5mm opening typical
 Hydrocyclone - Principles

Large particles settle

faster than small
particles of the same ore
or mineral.
Dense particles settle
faster than light particles
of the same size and
shape - allows us to
separate individual
particles.
To speed up settling, we
can create an artificial
gravitational force, called
centrifugal force.

a cyclone uses a rotating

motion to create a
centrifugal force.
 Classification
Size Separation.
The tangential inlet shape of the
cyclone forces feed to travel in a
rapid circular path. The circular
motion of the slurry creates the
centrifugal force necessary for
particle settling.
Larger and heavier particles,
shown in blue, which have a
higher settling rate, are thrown
against the cyclone wall and flow
down towards the apex.
Because of the cyclone design, the
conical bottom in the vortex finder
being larger than the apex, most
water moves to the outflow stream,
dragging the lighter particles,
shown in yellow, with it.
These fines and water form an
inner spiral, which leaves through
the vortex finder.
During normal operation, an air
core at the center of the cyclone
extends from the apex to the
vortex.
 Classification
Inlet: directs the feed into the
cyclone - creates a circular
motion.
Vortex finder: collects fine
material near the top of the
cyclone - called overflow. Most
of the water in the feed leaves
with the overflow. The vortex
finder extends into the cylindrical
section to prevent the feed from
short-circuiting to the overflow.
Cylindrical section: where
classification takes place.
Conical section: guides coarse
material towards the bottom of
the cyclone.
Apex: at the bottom, discharges
coarse or heavy material, called
underflow. On some cyclones,
the size of the apex can be
adjusted.
 Classification
Cyclones are grouped together
in a compact arrangement to
increase capacity. The number
of cyclones on-stream can be
changed to adjust capacity. The
valves also allow cyclones to be
switched for maintenance.
The central feed distributor
directs the feed to each cyclone.
The cyclone inlet valves are
used to isolate the cyclones.
The cyclones separate fine or
light particles from coarse or
heavy particles.
The common underflow launder
collects the underflow from
individual cyclones.
The common overflow launder
collects overflow from individual
cyclones.
 Cyclone variables: Classification
feed % solids is the most important
operating variable
When water is added, the cut size
becomes smaller.

A higher feed rate produces a

slightly finer overflow.

particles with high specific gravity

have finer cut size than particles of
the same size but with a lower
specific gravity.

A smaller vortex produces finer

overflow

If the apex capacity is exceeded, the

air core inside the apex collapses
and the spiraling motion is almost
lost. The discharge looks like a rope.

If there is a surge in the feed rate,

quite often coarse material
incorrectly reports to the overflow.
 Classification

Other types of
classifiers:

Rake classifier
Spiral classifier
Both convey free-
settling solids from
the bottom
Allow fines to
overflow the
launder
 Ancillary Equipment
Pumps:
transfer slurry from one point to another.
increases the pressure of a fluid to give it the driving force required for
flow.
In a grinding circuit, usually centrifugal pumps
pump box provides the pump with surge capacity
 Circuits
Comminution and Classification Circuits

Building blocks of grinding circuits:

Tumbling mills
cyclones or other classification devices
pump boxes, pumps
conveyors,
Stockpiles and feeders
The three basic types of grinding circuits are:
Open circuit
Closed circuit
Reversed closed circuit
The circuits differ in the way their components are put together.
 Circuits

Open circuit: the simplest

circuit. An open circuit has:
a feeder
a conveyor
a mill
Dry ore is fed to the mill by
the feed conveyor.
Water is added to the feed at
the mill inlet to form slurry.
The mill discharge flows out
of the mill to the next
process operation.
 Circuits

Closed circuit: some of the

ground product is recycled
to the mill.
Water is added to the mill
discharge pump box.
The cyclone feed is pumped
from the pump box to the
cyclone.
The cyclone underflow
returns to the mill.
The cyclone overflow goes
to the next process
operation.
Because of this recycle loop
returning coarse particles to
the mill, closed loop has
higher circuit capacity and a
more uniform product size
distribution.
 Circuits

Reversed closed
circuit: classification
takes place before
grinding
has a higher capacity
than a normal closed
circuit because fines
are removed before
grinding
Often used when the
circuit feed comes
from a first grinding
stage (rod mill or a
SAG mill for example)
to remove the fines
before they reach the
ball mill.
 Circuits

Circulating load: The quantity

of coarse material recycled to
the mill in a closed circuit.
A circulating load of 300%
means that for every tonne of
solids fed to the circuit, three
tonnes are recycled from the
cyclone to the mill.
Roughly indicates how many
passes particles make through
the mill.
Calculate by dividing the
recycle rate by the circuit feed
(or discharge) rate:
Circulating load = Recycle
solids rate / Fresh feed solids
rate
Given as a percentage.
Circulating loads for ball mill
circuits usually range from
100% to 400% and from 10% to
60% for AG/SAG mill circuits.
 Circuits

Typical SAG mill/ball

mill circuit
configuration

Feed to an AG or SAG
circuit is stockpiled
from the mine or from
a coarse crushing
stage with a typical top
size of between 15 cm
and 25 cm
The grate discharge
acts both to retain the
grinding media and to
effect classification to
the desired size.
 Circuits

Typical AG mill / ball mill

circuit
Screen oversize is
mainly composed of
critical sized material
that does not grind
readily.
The crusher prevents a
build-up of critical sized
material in the AG or
SAG circuit, thereby
increasing circuit
capacity.
splitter is used to
regulate the flow of ore
to the crusher
 Circuits
Typical rod mill / ball mill circuit
Feed is nomally from secondary/tertiary crushing.
The rod mill is open circuit, ball mill is closed circuit for size control
 Circuits

In general, the most

common low-level
control loops for
grinding circuits are:
Tonnage Water
flows
Mill % solids
Pump box level
 Assignment / Tutorial #9

Tutorial / Assignment
Complete Review questions on Edumine:

The Mill Operating Resource - 1: Ore Preparation

Part 3 - Secondary and Tertiary Crushing,
Review #3
Part 4 - Storage and Grinding, Review #4

Equipment Nomenclature
Gold
Oil Sands