EET301 2013 Chapter 7

POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING
EET 301/4
1 EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 7
PROTECTION IN
POWER
SYSTEM

On completion of this lesson, a student
should be able to:
Ability to explain and evaluate

symmetrical fault and protection
in power system

TOPIC OUTLINE
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basic Components of Protection System
7.3 The Concept of Protection System
7.4 Fuse
7.5 Computer Relaying
7.6 Zone of Protection

INTRODUCTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary function of a protection system in an
electrical power network is to ensure the continuity
of the electricity supply.
To achieve this, the protection system must be
able to:
Detect the abnormal condition in an electrical
circuit or piece of equipment
Identify the location of the fault
Isolate the faulty section of the circuit or the
faulty equipment only without the electricity
supply to the rest of the network.

INTRODUCTION
Requirements To Protective System Provide For Basis
To Design Criteria
Reliability: Operate dependably when fault conditions occur,

even after remaining idle for months or years. Failure to do so
may result in costly damages.
Speed: Operate rapidly to minimize fault duration and
equipment damage. Any intentional time delays should be
precise.
Selectivity: A relay system should provide maximum possible
service continuity with minimum system disconnection.
Simplicity: Minimize protection equipment and circuitry.
Economy: Provide maximum protection at minimum cost.

BASIC COMPONENTS
OF PROTECTION
SYSTEM

7.2 BASIC COMPONENTS
Protection systems have 3 basic components:
1. Instrument transformers
2. Protective Relays
3. Circuit breakers
A simple overcurrent
protection schematic with:
(1) one type of instrument

transformerthe current
transformer (CT),
(2) An overcurrent relay (OC),
and
(3) a circuit breaker (CB) for a
single-phase line.
Figure 1: Overrcurrent Protection Schematic
BASIC COMPONENTS
7.2.1 Instruments Transformer
In general, there are 2 basic types of instruments
transformers:
Current Transformer (CT)
Voltage Transformer (Potential Transformer) (VT)
Figure 2 shows a schematic representation for the VT and

CT. The transformer primary is connected to or into the
power system and is insulated for the power system
voltage.
The VT reduces the primary voltage and the CT reduces
the primary current to much lower, standardized levels
suitable for operation of relays.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Figure 2: VT and CT Schematic

BASIC COMPONENTS
Currents Transformer (CT)
For small currents at low voltage, trip coils and

ammeter can be connected directly into the current,
for example in series with the load.
However, series connection is not practical for HV
systems and for larger currents, for example 100A
and above.
Current transformers are used as a link between the
main circuit and the protection or measuring
equipment.

BASIC COMPONENTS
The function of the CT is to reproduce in its secondary
winding a current I that is proportional to the primary
current I.
The CT converts primary currents in the kilo ampere
range to secondary currents in the 0-5 ampere range for
convenience of measurement, with the following
advantages.
Safety: Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation
from the power system so that personnel working with relays
will work in a safer environment.
Economy: Lower-level relay inputs enable relays to be
smaller, simpler and less expensive.
Accuracy: Instrument transformers accurately reproduce
power system currents and voltages over wide operating
ranges.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Currents transformers are divided into 2 main types:-
Protection currents transformer
Measuring current transformer
The main parameters that define a current transformer are:-

Rated Primary Current: The maximum primary current that
the transformer has been designed, for example the maximum
current at which it can still comply with the relevant standard
specifications.
Rated Secondary Current: The maximum secondary current
that transformer has been designed for. The values are usually
1 A or 5 A .
Burden (in VA):The maximum load which can be connected to
secondary of the transformer.
Accuracy class: The designation given to a current
transformer that complies with the error limits specified in
the standards specification.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Accuracy class
In BS 3938: 1973, measuring CTs are divided into 5P of
10P. A CT marked 5P20 indicates that this is a
protection CT with composite error of 5% which is
applicable for currents up to 20 times the rated current.
Special purpose CT are designated as Class X.
Example:
A CT with a specification of 800/5A, 15 VA, Class 0.5, means
that the rated primary current is 800A, the secondary current is
5A (when primary is 800A), the burden is 15 VA, and it is a
measuring CTs with a current ratio error of 5% at the rated
current.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Currents transformer used in distribution system
have a single-turn primary windings and multi-turn
secondary windings
The 2 most common types of current transformer
are:
a) The primary winding is a straight copper bar (round or
rectangular) the secondary windings is wound round this
bar.
b) A round iron core which the secondary winding is wound.
Also known as a ring CTs. This types usually used
extensively in the low voltage systems.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

BASIC COMPONENTS
Table 1: Standard CT Ratios
Current Ratios
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5
450:5 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5
1500:5 1600:5 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5
4000:5 5000:5 6000:5

BASIC COMPONENTS
Ideally, the CT secondary is connected to a current-
sensing device with zero impedance, such that the entire
CTs secondary current flows through the sensing device.
In practice, the secondary current divides, with most
flowing through the low-impedance sensing device and
some flowing through the CT shunt excitation impedance.
CT excitation impedance is kept high in order to minimize
excitation current.
An approximate equivalent circuit of a CT is shown in
Figure 3, where:-
Z' = CT secondary leakage impedance
Xe = (Saturable) CT excitation reactance
ZB = Impedance of terminating device (relay, including
leads)

BASIC COMPONENTS
Figure 3: Current Transformer Equivalent Circuits

BASIC COMPONENTS
Determine Current Transformer Performance
The following procedure can be used to determine CT

performance.
Step 1 : Assume a CT secondary output current I

Step 2: Compute E=(Z+ZB) I
Step 3: Using E, Find Ie from the excitation curve
Step 4: Compute I = n(I+ Ie) , note: n=CTs ratio
Step 5: Repeat step 1-4 for different value of I, then
plot I versus I
BASIC COMPONENTS
CT Error
CT error is the percentage difference between

(I+ Ie) and I.
Ie
CT Error ' x 100 %
I Ie
Where,
Ie=CT Secondary excitation current
I=CT Secondary output current

EXAMPLE 7.1
Evaluate the performance of the multi-ratio CT in
Figure 3 with a 100:5 CT ratio, for the following
secondary output currents and burdens:
a)I = 5 A and ZB = 0.5 ohm.
b)I = 8 A and ZB = 0.8 ohm.
c)I = 15 A and ZB = 1.5 ohm.
Figure 3: Current Transformer Equivalent Circuits

EXAMPLE 7.1
Figure 4: Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing CT

SOLUTION
(a) STEP 1: I = 5 A
STEP 2: From Figure 4,
E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 0.5)(5) = 2.91 V

Ie = 0.25 A
STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (5+0.25) = 105 A

CT error = 0.25/5.25 x 100% = 4.8%.


SOLUTION
2.91 V
0.25 A

SOLUTION
(b) STEP 1: I = 8 A
E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 0.8)(8) = 7.06 V

Ie = 0.4 A
STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (8+0.4) = 168 A

CT error = 0.4/8.4 x 100% = 4.8%.


SOLUTION
7.06 V
0.4 A

SOLUTION
(c) STEP 1: I = 15 A
E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 1.5)(15) = 23.73 V

Ie = 20 A
STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (15+20) = 700 A

CT error = 20/35 x 100% = 57.1%.


SOLUTION
23.73 V
20 A

SOLUTION
Note that for the 15 A secondary current in (c), high CT
saturation causes a large CT error of 57.1%.
Standard practice is to select a CT ratio to give little less
than 5-A secondary output current at maximum normal
load.
From (a), the 100:5 CT ratio and 0.5 ohm burden are
suitable for a maximum primary load current of about 100
A.

EXAMPLE 7.2
An overcurrent relay set to operate at 8 A is connected
to the multiratio CT with a 100:5 CT ratio. Will the
relay detect a 200 A primary fault current if the
burden ZB is
a)0.8 ohm
b)3 ohm

SOLUTION
Note that if an ideal CT is assumed, (100/5)x8 = 160 A
primary current would cause the relay to operate
a) STEP 1: I = 8 A
E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 0.8)(8) = 7.06 V
Ie = 0.4 A
STEP 4: I = n(I + Ie) = (100/5) (8+0.4) = 168 A
A 168 A primary current with ZB = 0.8 ohm produces a secondary
output current of 8 A, which would cause the relay to operate.
Therefore, the higher 200 A fault current will also cause the
relay to operate
SOLUTION
b) STEP 1: I = 8 A
E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 3)(8) = 24.4 V
Ie = 30 A
STEP 4: I = n(I + Ie) = (100/5) (8+30) = 760 A
With a 3 ohm burden, 760 A is the lowest primary current that

causes the relay to operate
Therefore, the relay will not operate for the 200 A fault current

BASIC COMPONENTS
Voltage Transformer (VT)
It is not practical to manufacture meters and indicating

lamps for direct operation on 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 22 kV or
higher voltages.
Voltage transformer that steps down the high voltages to
working voltages for example 120 V, 240 V and 415 V are
used.
The are 2 types of voltage transformer :-
Protection transformer
Measuring transformer

BASIC COMPONENTS
The variation of voltage is a electricity network
usually very small (5%) so the operating range of a
measuring voltage transformer is small compare with
that of a measuring.
However, if a fault occurs, the voltage drops to a
very low value. Protection VT must be able to
operate over a wide range from as low as 5% to 190%
of the rated voltage.
(Alternatively, a separate battery power supply unit

is used for supply power to the protection
system/gear the voltage is normally 30V d.c)

BASIC COMPONENTS
There are 2 types of construction for voltage
transformer:-
Electromagnetic transformers with primary and secondary

windings. It is impregnated with synthetic resin. Normally
used up to 66 kV.
Capacitor VT which uses two capacitors in a voltage divider
arrangement. The voltage across one of the capacitor
connected to the primary of an auxiliary of an auxiliary
wound-type transformer.
The required voltage for the

protection or measuring device
is taken from the secondary of
this auxiliary transformer.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

BASIC COMPONENTS
7.2.2 Protective Relays
The function of the relay is to discriminate between

normal operation and fault conditions.
The OC relay in Figure 1 has an operating coil which
is connected to the CT secondary winding, and a set
of contacts.
When |I| exceeds a specified "pickup" value, the
operating coil causes the normally open contacts to
close.
When the relay contacts close, the trip coil of the
circuit breaker is energized, which then causes the
circuit breaker to open.
BASIC COMPONENTS
Class of Measuring Relays
1. Current relay: Operate at predetermined threshold
value of current.
2. Voltage relay: Operate at predetermined threshold
value of voltage.
3. Power relay: Operate at predetermined threshold
value of power.
4. Directional relay:
Alternating current: Operate according to the phase
relationship between alternating quantities.
Direct current: Operate according to the direction of the
current and are usually of the permanent-magnetic, moving-coil
pattern

BASIC COMPONENTS
5. Frequency relays: Operate at a predetermined
frequency. These include over frequency and under
frequency relays.
6. Temperature relays: Operate at a predetermined
temperature in the protected component.
7. Differential relays: Operate according to the scalar
or vectorial difference between two quantities such
as current, voltage, etc.
8. Distance relays: Operate according to the
"distance" between the relay's current transformer
and the fault. The "distance" is measured in terms
of resistance, reactance, or impedance.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Electromechanical and Induction Disc Relays
Two types of electromagnetic attraction type of

relay are:
1. The plunger unit.
It has cylindrical coils with an external magnetic
structure and a center plunger. The plunger moves
upward to operate a set of contacts when the current
or voltage applied to the coil exceeds a certain
value.
2. The clapper unit.

It has a U-shaped magnetic frame with a movable
armature across the open end. The armature is
hinged at one side and spring-restrained at the other.
BASIC COMPONENTS
When the electrical coil is energized, the armature
moves toward the magnetic core, opening or
closing a set of contacts with a torque proportional
to the square of the coil current.
3. Induction disc relay

Induction disc units are based on the watt-hour
meter design and use the same operating
principles. They operate by torque resulting from
the interaction of fluxes produced by an
electromagnet with those from induced currents in
the plane of a rotatable aluminum disc.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Keeper
Disc
IS
Main coil
Figure 5: Electromagnet Plunger type I
Electromagnet
5 .L .R
4
6 Magnet
plugs
2 Figure 7: Induction Disc Type Relay Unit.

3 1magnetic core
1
2armature
3relay coil
4spring
5moving contact Bridge
6normally open relay contact
Figure 6: Electromagnet clapper

type

Induction Disc Relay
This relay Inverse Definite Minimum Time
(IDMT).
The operating characteristic of a standard IDMT
relay is defined as:
0.14 TMS
t
PSM 0.02 1
TMS time multiplier setting
PSM plug setting multiplier
I I measured current
PSM Is relay setting current
Is
Example:
Determine the time of operation of a 1 A, 3 s overcurrent relay having a
Plug Setting of 125% and a Time Multiplier of 0.6. The supplying CT is
rated 400:1 A and the fault current is 4000 A.
Solution
the relay coil current for the fault
The nominal relay coil current
1
I 4000 10 A
400
125
Is 1 A 1.25 A
100
The plug setting multiplier
10
PSM 8
1.25
the time of operation
0.14 TMS
t
PSM 0.02 1
0.14 0.6
0.02
8 1
1.98 s

BASIC COMPONENTS
7.2.3 Circuit Breaker (CB)
CB is a reusable device that may be rest after operation.
It set to protect circuit and equipment from over current
resulting from overloads and short circuits.
Electrically, CB connected in series with the load and
carry load current under normal condition.
Have three operation condition ON (Contact closed)
allowing, load current to flow through breaker, OFF
(Contact open) breaker contact open , circuit is
deernergized and TRIPPED ( Contact open need reset)
when overcurrent and overload occur or by the operation
of the shunt trip on under voltage.

BASIC COMPONENTS
Bimetal Circuit breaker
contacts
Current
Current
in
Spring out
Latch
Normal Tripped
A. Thermal
Latch
Circuit breaker
contacts
Current
Spring out
Armature
Electromagnetic
coil Electromagnetic
Current in coil
Normal B. Magnetic Tripped
Figure 8: Circuit breaker trip mechanisms.

THE CONCEPT
OF PROTECTION
SYSTEM
7.3.1 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
A number of fault conditions can arise within a
power transformer.
Earth fault
Core faults
Inter turn faults
Phase to phase faults
Tank fault
In addition to the fault condition cause stresses on
the transformer, such as overloading, system
faults , over voltages and under frequency
operation

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
PROTECTED
I I
APPARATUS
im1 im2
Relay
High impedance im1 im2 im1 im2

relay
Basic Differential Connections.

Restricted Ground Fault
Protection for a Y winding. Main scheme use for transformer. The
main principle , the current at each
The sum of the phase currents is side of protected apparatus for each
balanced against the neutral phase are compared in differential
current, hence the relay will not relay.
respond to fault outside the Any difference current will operate the
winding. relay.
Number of considerations should
PROTECTED be dealt with in applying
I I
APPARATUS
differential protection including:-
im1 im2
Transformer ratio
The CT should have rating to
Relay match the rated currents of the
im1 im2 im1 im2 transformer winding which they
are applied.
The current transformer should
Figure 9: Basic Differential be connected in Y for winding
Connections. and for Y winding ( see next
figure)
Allowance should be made for
taping changing by providing
EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING
restraining coil.
53
Power
transformer
C. T.s C. T.s
Circuit Circuit
Breaker Breaker
A
A
B B
C C
Relay Example of Differential

o
Protection of a /Y transformer.
R R Phase A
o
R R Phase B
o
R R Phase C

EXAMPLE 7.3
Consider a /Y connected, 20 MVA, 33/11 kV transformer with
differential protection applied, for the current transformer ratios shown
in Figure 10. Calculate the relay currents on full load. Find the minimum
relay current setting to allow 125 percent overload.

Figure 10
55
SOLUTION
The primary line current is given by
20MVA
Ip 349.91 A
3 33kV
The secondary line current is
20MVA
Is 1049.73 A
3 11kV

SOLUTION
The C.T. current on the primary side is thus
5
i p 349.91 5.832 A
300
The C.T. current in the secondary side is
5
is 1049.73 A 3 4.545
2000
Note that we multiply by 3 to obtain the values on the line side of the
connected C.T.s. The relay current on normal load is therefore
ir is i p 5.832 4.545 1.287 A

With 1.25 overload ratio, the relay setting should be
ir 1.25 1.287 1.61 A

Buchholz Protection
it is common practice in transformer protection to
employ gas-actuated relays for alarm and tripping.
One such a relay is the Buchholz relay. Faults within
a transformer will result in heating and decomposing
of the oil in the transformer tank.
The decomposition produces gases such as hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and light hydrocarbons, which are
released slowly for minor faults and rapidly for
severe arcing faults.
In the gas activated relay named after its inventor,
this phenomenon is utilized.

The relay is connected into the pipe leading to the
conservator tank.
As the gas
accumulates, the oil
level falls and a float F
is lowered and
operates a mercury
switch to sound an
alarm.
Sampling the gas and
performing a chemical
analysis provide a
means for classifying
the types of fault.
Buchholz protection provides an alarm for a number
of fault conditions including:
1. Inter turn faults or winding faults involving only
lower power levels.
2. Core hot spots due to short circuits on the
lamination insulation.
3. Faulty joints.
4. Core bolt insulation failure.
Major faults resulting in tripping include severe earth

or inter phase winding faults and loss of oil through
leakage.

7.3.2 BUSBAR PROTECTION
Bus bars are an essential link in the electric power
system, and short circuits in their zone have to be
interrupted in the shortest possible time.
In distribution systems (6-20 kV) with supply through
transformers, overcurrent time-relays provide an
easy protection mechanism.
The relays interrupt the supply to the bus bars if one
or more supplies conducting a fault current.
Power direction relays are used in the transformer
supply side to respond to a fault at the bus bars.

BUSBAR PROTECTION
Differential protection is the most reliable method
of protection for bus bars.

7.3.3 GENERATOR PROTECTION
There are a number of abnormal conditions that may
occur with rotating equipment, including:
1. Faults in the windings.
2. Loss of excitation.
3. Motoring of generators.
4. Overload.
5. Overheating.
6. Overspeed.
7. Unbalanced operation.
8. Out-of-step operation.

GENERATOR PROTECTION
Various types of faults that may occur in the
insulation system of a generator's windings.
The faults shown are identified as:
1. Interphase short circuit.

2. Interturn fault.
3. Stator earth fault.
4. Rotor earth fault.
5. Interturn fault in rotor.
Note that A denotes the insulation of individual windings
and B denotes the stator core.

64
GENERATOR PROTECTION
Allocation of Protective
Devices for the Stator,
Rotor and Prime Mover.

7.3.4 TRANSMISSION LINE
PROTECTION
It is necessary to provide the desired selectivity such
that relay operation result in the least service
interruption while isolating the fault.
The excessive currents accompanying a fault are the
basis of over current protection scheme.
In transmission line protection system, it is necessary
to provide the desired selectivity such that relay
operation result in the least service interruption
while isolating the fault.
In transmission line protection scheme, relay
coordination is MUST.

TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION
Three methods of relay grading:
Current Grading.
Time Grading
Inverse Time Over Current Relaying
1. Operates at suitable
graded current
2. Fault current are
higher near the
source.
3. Relays are set that
decreases as distance
from the source is
increased.
Time Grading
1. Ensure the breaker
nearest to the fault open
first, by choosing an
appropriate time setting
for each of the relay.
2. Time setting increase as
the relay get closer to the
source.
1. Evolved because of the

limitation imposed by the
use either current or time
alone.
2. Time of operation is
inversely proportional to
the fault current level.
Relays type CO-7 is in
68 EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING common use.
Inverse Time Over Current Relaying
The operating time over current relay varies with
the current magnitude.
There are two setting for this type of relay:
1. Pick-up current is determined by adjusted current
coil tap setting (C.T.S).
The pick-up current is the current that causes the
relay to operate and close the contacts.
2. Time dial setting (or time multiplier setting) refers
to the reset position of moving contact, and it is
varies the time of operation at a given tap setting
and current magnitude.

Radial System Protection
Many radial systems are protected by time delay
overcurrent relays.
Adjustable time delays can be selected such that the
breaker closest to the fault opens, while other upstream
breakers with larger time delays remain closed.
That is, relays can be coordinated to operated in
sequence so as to interrupt minimum load during faults.
Successful relay coordination is obtained when faul
currents are much larger than normal load currents
Also, coordination of overcurrent relays usually limits the
maximum number of breakers in a radial system to five or
less, otherwise the relay closet to the source may have an
excessive time delay

Consider a fault at P1 to the right of breaker B3 for the radial
system of Figure 10.
We want breaker B3 to open while B2 and B1 remains closed.
Under these condition, only load L3 is interrupted
We could select a longer time delay for the relay at B2 so that
B3 operates first
Thus, for any fault to the right of B3, B3 provides primary
protection
If B3 fails to open, B2 will open after time delay, thus providing
backup protection
71 EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING Figure

10
Similarly, consider a fault at P2, we want B2 to open while B1
remains closed
Under these conditions, loads L2 and L3 are interrupted
Since the fault is closer to the source, the fault current will be
larger than for the previous fault considered
We also select the B1 relay with a longer time delay than B2, so
that B2 opens first.
Thus, B2 provides primary protection for faults between B2 and
B3, as well as back up protection for faults to the right of B3.

10
Similarly, B1 provides primary protection for faults between B1
and B2, as well as back up protection for further downstream
faults
The coordination time interval is the time interval between the
primary and remote backup protective devices
It is the different between the time that the backup relaying
operates and the time that circuit breakers clear the fault
under primary relaying
Typical time interval between 0.2 to 0.5 seconds are selected
to account in most practical applications

10
EXAMPLE 7.4
The CO-8 relay with a current tap setting of 6 amperes and time
dial setting of 1 is used with the 100:5 CT in Example 7.1.
Determine the relay operating time for each case.
Solution:
a)From example 7.1(a)

I' 5
I ' 5A; 0.83
Ip 6
The relay does not operate. It remains in the blocking position.

SOLUTION
I' 8
b) I ' 8A; 1.33
Ip 6
Using curve 1 in Figure 11, toperating = 6 seconds
I ' 15
c) I ' 8A; 2.5
Ip 6
From curve 1, toperating = 1.2 seconds

Figure 11: CO-8 time delay overcurrent relay characteristic
EXAMPLE 7.5
An 11 kV, 50 Hz radial system is shown in Figure 12. Assuming a
CO-7 relay with relay characteristic given in Figure 13 and the
same power factor for all loads, select relay settings to protect
the system with coordination time interval 0.3 seconds.
Figure 12
78 EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING Figure 13
SOLUTION
The load currents are calculated as
The normal current through the sections are then given

by

SOLUTION
With the given CT ratios, the normal relay currents are
Now obtain C.T.S. (currents tap setting) or pick up

current in such a way that the relay does not trip
under normal currents.
For this type of relay, C.T.S. available are 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 10 and 12 A.

SOLUTION
Choosing the nearest setting higher than the normal
current
For position 1, the normal current in the relay is 5.25

A, so choose C.T.S.1 = 6 A

SOLUTION
Next, select the intentional delay indicated by TDS
(Time Dial Setting). Utilize the short circuit currents
to coordinate the relays
The current in the relay at 1 on short circuit is
Expressed as a pick up value
Choose the lowest TDS for this relay for fastest

action. Thus,
TDS1 =

SOLUTION
Referring to the relay characteristic, for TDS1 =
and 10.42 ratio, the operating time for the relay 1
for a fault at 1 is obtained as T11 = 0.15 s.
To set the relay at 2 responding to a fault at 1, allow
breaker operating time,
Tbreaker = 5cycle x 1/50Hz = 0.1 s.
With coordination time 0.3 seconds, thus primary

protection to clear this fault
T21 = T11+Tbreaker+Tcoordination = 0.15 + 0.1 + 0.3 = 0.55 s

SOLUTION
Short circuit for a fault at 1 as a multiple of the CTs
at 2 is
From the characteristics for 0.55 s operating time

and 6.25 ratio,
TDS2 = 2
Now setting the relay at 3
For a fault at bus 2, the short circuit current is 3000 A,
for which relay 2 responds in a time T22 calculated as

SOLUTION
For TDS2 = 2 and 7.5 ratio, from relay characteristic,
T22 = 0.5 s
Allowing the same margin for relay 3 to respond for a
fault at 2, as for relay 2 responding to a fault at 1,
T32 = T22 + Tbreaker + Tcoordination = 0.5 + 0.1 + 0.3 = 0.9 s
The current in the relay expressed as a multiple of pickup

is
Thus, for T3 = 0.9 s and 3.75 ratio, from the relay

characteristic
TDS3 = 2.5

FUSE

7.4 FUSE
Fuse is a device connected in series with the
conductors that caries the full load current
supplied to the load.
Under the normal condition, the load current is less
than the ampere rating of the fuse, and the fuse
remain intact to connect the load to the source.
When overload or short circuit occurs, the current
through link will also increase. Once the link totally
melted, an open circuit exist in the fuse, an open
circuit exist and the circuit will remain open.
The it must be replaced. Fuse are one time
device.

FUSE
Reduced area of link Reduced area of link
Filler material
A. Non-Current Limiting , Non-Time
Delay Fuse B. Current Limiting Non-Time
Delay Fuse
Short circuit element

Trigger spring
Connector
C. Current Limiting Time

Delay Fuse

7.4 FUSE
During normal operation, when the fuse is operating
below its continuous current rating, the resistance of the
link is so low
If an overload current occurs and persists for more than a
short interval of time, the temperature of the link
eventually reaches a level that causes a restricted
segment of the link to melt.
A gap is then formed and an electric arc is established.
As the arc causes the link metal to burn back, the gap
width increases.
The resistance of the arc eventually reaches such a high
level that the arc cannot be sustained and it is
extinguished.
The current flow within the fuse is then completely cut
off.

7.4 FUSE

7.4 FUSE
Fuse specification is normally based on the following four factors.
Voltage rating: this rms voltage determines the ability of a fuse

to suppress the internal arc that occurs after the fuse link
melts. A blown fuse should be able to withstand its voltage
rating. Most low voltage fuse have 250 600 V rating and
medium voltage rating fuse range from 2.4 34.5 kV.
Continuous current rating: the fuse should carry this rms
current indefinitely, without melting and clearing.
Interrupting current rating: Is the largest rms asymmetrical
current that the fuse can safely interrupt. Standard
interrupting rating for medium voltage include 65, 80 and 100
kA.
Time response: the melting and clearing time of a fuse
depends on the magnitude of the overcurrent and specified by
a time-current curve.

Example
A 415 V distribution system is shown in Figure 14.
Select the suitable rating of fuse for each load and
incoming circuit using fuse time-current characteristic
in Figure 15.

Example

Solution
Fuse selection for each circuit
Lighting load:
20kW
I lighting 27.8 A
3 415V
select 32 A fuse
Heating load:
30kW
I heating 41.7 A
3 415V
select 50 A fuse
Solution
Motor load:
Pout 30 kW
Pin 32.6 kW
0.92
The motor full load current is
32.6kW
I motor 54.7 A
3 415V 0.85
The starting current for 10 seconds is 7 time than the

full load current, therefore
I 7 54.7 383A

Solution
From the time-current curve, an 80 A fuse would
withstand 383 A for only 6 seconds.
Therefore, for a 100 A fuse, which would withstand 383 A
for longer than 10 seconds, would be necessary.
To provide discrimination the fuse at incoming circuit
must meet the following requirements:
It must carry the normal load current:
I 27.8 41.7 54.7 124.2A
It must carry the load + the starting current of the motor
I 27.8 41.7 383 452.5A for 10 s
From time-current curve, a 125 A fuse would withstand
452.5 A for more than 10 s.

COMPUTER
RELAYING
7.5 COMPUTER RELAYING
The electric power industry has been one of the
earliest users of the digital computer as a
fundamental aid in the various design and analysis
aspects of its activity.
There are many perceived benefits of a digital
relaying system:
1. Economics: cost effective
2. Reliability: continuously active providing a high level of
self-diagnosis.
3. Flexibility: Revisions or modifications made necessary by
changing operational conditions
4. System interaction: The availability of digitalhardware
that monitors continuously the system performance at
remote substations.
COMPUTER RELAYING
Example of Functional Block of Digital Relay

ZONE OF
PROTECTION
7.6 ZONE OF PROTECTION
Power system configurations, a fundamental concept
is the division of a system into protective zones.
If a fault occurs anywhere within a zone, action will
be taken to isolate that zone from the rest of the
system. Zones are defined for:
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transmission and distribution lines
Motors

ZONE OF PROTECTION
Each zone is defined by a closed, dashed line. As shown
in Figure 16, Zone 1 for example, contains a generator
and connecting leads to a transformer ,.
In some cases a zone may contain more than one
component.
For example, Zone 3 contains a generator-transformer
unit and connecting leads to a bus, and Zone 10 contains
a transformer and a line.
Protective zones have the following characteristics:
Zones are overlapped.
Circuit breakers are located in the overlap regions.
For a fault anywhere in a zone, all circuit breakers in
that zone open to isolate the fault.

ZONE OF PROTECTION
Figure 16 : Power System Protective Zones

END
OF
CHAPTER 7
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106 EET305 POWER SYSTEM FUNDAMENTAL

EET301 2013 Chapter 7

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POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

1 EET301 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

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Ability to explain and evaluate

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Reliability: Operate dependably when fault conditions occur,

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(1) one type of instrument

Figure 2 shows a schematic representation for the VT and

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Figure 2: VT and CT Schematic

For small currents at low voltage, trip coils and

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The main parameters that define a current transformer are:-

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Special purpose CT are designated as Class X.

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450:5 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5

1500:5 1600:5 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5

4000:5 5000:5 6000:5

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Figure 3: Current Transformer Equivalent Circuits

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The following procedure can be used to determine CT

Step 1 : Assume a CT secondary output current I

CT error is the percentage difference between

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Figure 3: Current Transformer Equivalent Circuits

Figure 4: Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing CT

E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 0.5)(5) = 2.91 V

STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (5+0.25) = 105 A

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Figure 4: Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing CT

E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 0.8)(8) = 7.06 V

STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (8+0.4) = 168 A

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Figure 4: Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing CT

E = (Z + ZB)I = (0.082 + 1.5)(15) = 23.73 V

STEP 4: I = n (I + Ie) = (100/5) (15+20) = 700 A

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Figure 4: Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing CT

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With a 3 ohm burden, 760 A is the lowest primary current that

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It is not practical to manufacture meters and indicating

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(Alternatively, a separate battery power supply unit

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Electromagnetic transformers with primary and secondary

The required voltage for the

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The function of the relay is to discriminate between

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