CiEn 361- Structural Analysis

Lecture 1
Fall 2000
Huey K. Lawson

Fall 2000
 Key Information

Instructor: Huey Kenneth Lawson

Website: http://blackboard.subr.edu
Text: Hibbeler, R. C., Structural
Analysis, Fourth Edition,
Prentice Hall
Office: Suite 222, J. B. Moore Hall

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 Course Overview
Introduction to Structures and Loads
Review of Statically Determinate Structures
Review of Statically Determinate Trusses
Internal Loading in Beams and Frames
Deflections
Force Method of Analysis for Indeterminate
Structures
Displacement Methods of Analysis
Influence Lines
Analysis of Non-prismatic members
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 Chapter 1 - Hibbeler

Types of Structures and Loads

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 A structure
Refers to a system of connected
parts used to support a load.

"A good structural engineering design

must be judged on three criteria:
minimum use of materials, minimum
cost, and maximum aesthetic expression
(with satisfactoryFall
performance)"
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 The Design Process
To discuss the design process, consider the following
design problem:

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 Controlling Design
Specification
A project of this type will generally be constructed
following the traffic, highway alignment and bridge
design specifications of the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (ASSHTO).
These will specify, among many other requirements, the
number of lanes required for the expected traffic, the
sightlines and side distances required for safety, and
how the bridge will be designed. Environmental and
aesthetic concerns, as well as construction process
considerations will weight heavily on many of the
design choices to be made.

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 After a site has been selected
and the main logistical
constraints established, typical
steps in the structural
engineering design process
are as follows:

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 Selection of the Structural Material and Form

There are many options available to the designer, and the choices will be based on
economics, client preferences, and the expertise of the designer and construction
company. In general a single selection will be made for a small project; a large
project will carry several options through the preliminary design stages (i.e., in
sufficient detail to generate reliable budget figures). The main idea for the structural
system (form) is to provide a complete load path for vertical loads (gravity and
snow), lateral loads (wind, earthquake, earth and water pressure), self-restraining
loads (temperature, shrinkage and creep), and support movements. The structural
form has to provide good performance both under everyday loading (the service load
level) and under extreme overloads (the ultimate strength load level). Ideally the
form will provide both ductile behavior (i.e., under an extreme overload, it will
undergo gross deformations and give warning of impending failure) and alternate
load paths should one of its main components fail. The need for alternate load paths
gives rise to indeterminate structures. The next pages show some possible
alternatives and some pros and cons of each option. The pros and cons are not meant
to provide an exhaustive list of the advantages and disadvantages of each structural
system. They are given only to illustrate the fact that in engineering design there are
no unique solutions.
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Pros and Cons?

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Pros and Cons?

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Pros and Cons?

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 List of Long Bridge Span for
Each Type
Beams 100+ ft.- Rio-Niteroi (860 ft., Brazil)
Truss cantilever 300+ ft.; Quebec (1793 ft., Canada); Firth of
Forth (1710 ft. Scotland)
Arch rib - 400+ ft. Kirk (1280 ft., Croatia); Fremont (1245 ft.)
Arch -truss 800+ ft. New River Gorge (1700 ft.); Bayonne
(1675 ft.)
Cable-stayed 300+ ft.- Tatara (2920 ft., Japan); Normandie
(2808 ft., France)
Suspension - 1000 +ft. - Akashi-Kaikyo (6529 ft. Japan)
Storebelt (5328, Denmark)
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 Determination of the external loads

The design loads will be derived primarily from the clients needs and
the location of the structure. Since all the loads that will be placed on a
structure are difficult to determine a priori, this step presents many
problems to the designer. Generally this step is handled with the aid of
load codes (legal documents adopted by jurisdictions) such as ASCE
7-98 and the ASSHTO bridge design specification. These load codes
provide minimum loads and are probabilistic in nature. Examples of
the probabilistic nature are the wind velocity distributions assumed,
the models used to predict earthquake occurrences, and the load
combinations used. The load codes assume that a small but finite
probability of failure is acceptable and the design process implies a
certain risk (risk = probability of failure x cost of failure).
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 For the design of a bridge such as the one in our
example, the following loads will need to be
considered:

Dead load of structural components (slab, beams, girders and

columns) and non-structural elements (barriers, illumination
towers, utilities, wearing surface)
Horizontal and vertical earth pressures
Accumulated locked-in forces from the construction process
Live loads due to vehicles (trucks), including friction, braking
and centrifugal forces
Wind and earthquake forces
Vehicular and vessel collision forces
Pedestrian live loads
Creep, shrinkage and temperature effects
Water and ice loads and stream pressures
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 Selection of the limit states or
performance criteria
1. Service: vertical deflection (L/360 for buildings and L/800 for
bridges, where L is the span), drift (sidesway, H/400 for
buildings under everyday wind loads, where H is the height of
the structure), vibration, cracking, long term (creep and
shrinkage), temperature and other thermal stresses, fatigue,
small earthquakes.
2. Ultimate Strength: the structure will yield and deform, but not
collapse under the maximum design loads (say maximum
credible earthquake).
3. Overload: for bridges, some overloads are expected (either
legal or illegal); for medium size earthquakes; for high winds =
some damage permitted. Fall 2000
4. Durability, reparability, adaptation to new uses, real
 Creation of an analytical model

We will talk in more details about this step latter, but this step is
of concern in this course. Numerous decisions need to be made
here about the complexity of the model to be used. The level of
complexity will depend on the importance of the structure, the
uncertainties of the loads and material properties, and the
availability of solution tools (computer programs).

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 The model has to have some physical attributes
(member sizes, strength of the materials, etc.) before
we can proceed to the next step. In addition, the
following remarks are in order:
1. The main advantage of the current state-of-the-art is that designers can
develop a structural idealization that is very "close" to the true structure;
many different alternatives can be investigated; many more loading types
can be handled, and the problems can be approached in a systematic and
consistent fashion. This is due mostly to the availability of computer
programs.
2. However, many important behavioral aspects (3D action, role of the floor
slabs, torsion, semi-rigid connections, non-structural elements, etc.), are
ignored even in the most "sophisticated" models used for preliminary
design.
3. The main disadvantage is that the approach can be turned into a "black box"
(GIGO = garbage in, garbage out). The output is only as good as the input,
so the modeling is the key = experience is needed, and the model and the
real structure must correspond. Insuring the reasonableness of the results is
still critical.
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Computations of stresses and strains

This is the essence of this course!! once we have a model and

the loads, can we find all the internal forces and external
reactions ? Analysis for stresses and deformations can usually
be accomplished with the aid of analysis charts and tables for
simple structures and preliminary design purposes, and by
computer for larger, indeterminate structures. Note that step (4)
required us to guess the member sizes; thus an iterative
procedure for steps (3)-(8) is necessary in order to optimize the
design.

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Evaluation of results

- of concern in this course =

useless unless you know how
to compute well!!

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 Design of members to satisfy (5).

The design of structural members is often governed by design specifications

developed by industrial organizations. These are often related to materials
production: ACI for concrete, AISC and AISI for steel, MSI for masonry,
etc.). These design codes are adopted into regional building codes such as
the UBC (Uniform Building Code), the Southern Building Code (SBC), and
the National Building Code. By the year 2001, we will have the International
Building Code (IBC) which will unify all regional codes into a single
national one. Note that there is a difference between a code, which is a
legally binding document, and a specification, which only suggests rules for
design. The ACI 318-95 documents, which govern the design of structural
concrete structures, are specifications; they are incorporated into the design
codes by organizations such as BOCA, and then become law when adopted
by -the local authorities.
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 Reanalysis to ensure adequacy of
the final design.

This step checks that, for the final design, individual members and
their connections, as well as the overall structure, satisfy limit states.
Remember that limit states imply "failure to perform as intended",
not necessarily collapse! cracking, creep and shrinkage of concrete
significantly affect its performance these are not of concern with
steel design. Another example is durability characteristics- related
mostly to cracking resistance and permeability of the concrete
(chloride ion transfer). Further examples include fire and fatigue
resistance.

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 Detailing

the final design must be consistent with the assumptions of

the final model. Detailing is more an art -than a precise
science, although some basic guidelines are available. All
the hard work of the other phases might be lost if detailing is
-not properly carried out.

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 Objectives of the Design
Process
a. Protect life safety when the structure is subjected to the maximum expected loads
The primary concern, and the only one actually addressed directly by building codes, is
protection of human life. It overrides any other consideration that the engineer might
have.
Hammurabi's Code - "an eye for an eye".
Buildings must not endanger their occupants even under extreme loads; if hurricanes
tornadoes or earthquakes hit, we want the building to survive. It may not be of much
use afterwards, but it must not to collapse on its occupants.
b. Insure satisfactory performance under everyday loads- does the building satisfy the
requirements that its owner demanded? This is primarily a matter for the architect and
design managers, but the structural engineer must insure certain things, i.e., that the
building does not sway significantly under moderate winds (humans are very sensitive to
motion, an even small accelerations can make people uncomfortable), or if the building
sways enough, excessive deformations may cause doors and windows to jam, facade panels
to crack (humans are also very sensitive to visual stimuli, the building may be structurally
safe, but people will go by appearances).

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 Objectives of the Design
Process
c. Provide economy of construction - always an important factor - mostly a
matter of the correct selection of the materials and the expertise of the
construction firm some of these choices are tied to geographical availability.
d. Provide ease of construction In RC construction, for example, ease of
fabrication and placement of the steel reinforcement and formwork (lack of
steel congestion). Speed of construction how many floors per week?. The
design must not be confusing or require significant changes from the design
office to the erection stage (Kansas City Hyatt) easy to avoid errors.
e. Provide ease of maintenance, repair, and upgrading new concern tied to
emerging concerns with sustainable development.
f. Deliver all of the above and simultaneously provide aesthetic value this
refers to the appropriateness of the structure both in terms of its exterior
appearance and impact and the interior comfort and "user-friendliness."

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CiEn 361- Structural Analysis

Lecture 2
Fall 2000
Huey K. Lawson

Fall 2000
 Gravity Loads
Dead Loads

1.Long term stationary forces including self weight of the

structure and weight of permanent equipment.
2.How much do various building materials weigh?
For example see appendices A and B in Design and Wood
Structures by D. Breyer.
Weights are given in lb/ft2 (also written as psf)
How do you use this information?
3.Consider the following flat roof:

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 a.Compute the dead load carried by a typical 2 X 10 beam and
draw its proper load diagram.
i.Consider the weight of the basic roof.
The basic roofing loads are uniformly applied over the
entire roof:

Material psf
3 ply with gravel 5.5
5/8" plywood 5/8 (3.0) = 1.9
4" loose insulation 4 (.5) = 2.0
9.4 psf

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i. How much of this load does the typical 2 X 10 carry?
It is a function of the member's tributary area.
The area assumed to load any given member is
called tributary area = span X tributary width
where tributary width is often = on center, (o.c.),
spacing.

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 For a typical 2 X 10,
the tributary area = 20 X
8 = 160 ft2
For an exterior 2 X 10,
tributary area = 20 X 4
= 80 ft2
Model the 2 X 10 with
basic roof load as:

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with = uniformly distributed line,
load = unit psf load X tributary width.
For this example then, = 9.4 lb/ft2
(8ft) = 75.2 lb/ft.

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But is this the only dead load carried by this beam?
Need to consider the beam self weight and the
weight of the 2 X 4 members framing into the
beam.
There are a number of ways to calculate a member's
self weight, but all methods:
Are a function of wood species, moisture content,
and dimensions.
And you must be careful to properly track units.
For this example problem, self-weight can be found as:
Assume dry Douglas Fir-Larch, (DF-L), with
specific weight of 35 lb/ft3.
2" nominal 1.5" actual.
10" nominal 9.25" actual.

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Calculate the dead weight of 2 X 4 at 2' o.c.
spanning into 2 X 10.
Assume DF-L again
One 2 X 4 member weighs:
4" nominal 3.5" actual.

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 Each 2X4 spans 8' with a
2X10 supporting each
end of the 2 X 4
1/2 its weight is
supported by each 2X10
or
1/2 (1.28 lb/ft) (8ft) =
5.12 lbs.
Each typical 2X10
supports 9-2X4's per side:
the total load on the 2
X 10 is 2 (9) (5.12 lb) =
92.16 lbs.
distribute this over 20'
span yielding 92.1 lbs /
20 ft = 4.61 lb/ft
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Therefore total dead weight supported by a typical
2X10 is due to a summation of the basic roof (and
ceiling, if directly attached to underside of roof
members), self-weight, and self-weight of any
supporting members.

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 Live Loads, L or Lr

Live Loads, L:

Short duration forces which change in location and

magnitude.
Include people and furniture.
Based upon intended use of building = occupancy.
In example, see UBC Table 16-A:
floor uniform loads are a function of use/occupancy.
an example, the uniform load for:
residential = 40 psf
offices = 50 psf
light storage = 125 psf

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 Roof Live Loads, Lr:

UBC recognizes that roofs carry lower

loads than floors, since roofs are
generally not occupied.
UBC specified roof loads account for
miscellaneous loads like roofing,
equipment, servicing.

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 Roof Live Loads Lr (Contd)
Obtain minimum unit roof loads from 1994 or
1997 UBC table 16-C:
These live loads are assumed to act vertically
open the area projected on a horizontal plane.
f (roof slope, tributary load area) with smaller unit
loads for steeper members with large tributary
areas:
o Flat roofs - higher probability that high unit live loads
could occur.
o Tributary are a, (t.a), of member under consideration:
"If a member has a small t.a., it is likely that a fairly high
unit live load could be imposed over that entire small
surface area... It is less likely that a large t.a. will be
uniformly loaded by the same high unit load considered
for a small t.a. member." (Design of Wood Structures by D.
Breyer) Fall 2000
 Procedure
1. Calculate roof slope (member slope)
2. Calculate t.a. of member.
3. Choose Method 1 or Method 2 to obtain unit
load.
o Method 1 is straightforward, but incremental.
o Method 2 provides a continuous range of loads,
but requires the checking of two equations which
can be found in '94 UBC 1606 or '97 UBC 1607.5.
4. Apply load on the horizontal plane (see
upcoming example under snow loads).

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 Introduction to Snow Loads
Often established by local building official as they
can vary greatly over relatively small geographic
areas.
Appendix, Chapter 16 covers snow loads in much
more detail than '94 UBC 1605.4 or '97 UBC 1614
sections.
o This appendix provides detailed information to calculate:
Roof snow load as a function of ground snow load, building
exposure, and importance.
Unbalanced snow loads.
Drift potential.

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 Snow Load Intro. Contd
Design snow load = f (roof slope):
o If basic roof snow load is greater than 20 psf and if
roof slope 20, then Ra = S/40 - 1/2, where Ra =
reduction in S in psf per degree > 20.
Flagstaff's basic S = 40 psf.
Snow load is given along the horizontal plane.
Other facts:
o 1" newly fallen snow .5 psf.
o 1" packed snow 1 psf.

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 Snow Load Example
Determine the load, V and M
diagrams for a typical 6 X 12
rafter using both the sloping roof
method and the horizontal plane
method. The basic roof S is given
as 35 psf.

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 Solution
1. Roof Live load Determination:

Roofing 2.5 psf

Decking 6.6 psf
Insulation 2.0 psf
Rafter weight 15.4 lbs/ft (1/10) = 1.5 psf
12.6 psf =D applied along the slope.

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 Roof live for typical

Determine tributary width within horizontal plane:

t.a. = 24(10) = 240 ft2

Roof slope: tan = 1/2, = 26.5 or 1/2 = 6/12

6:12
Therefore according to UBC Table 16-C, basic Lr
= 14 psf.

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 UBC Table 16-F
Wind Stagnation Pressure (qs) at Standard Height of 33 Feet

Basic Wind Speed (mph)1 (X 1.61 for km/hr) 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Pressure qs (psf) (X 0.0479 for kN/m2) 12.6 16.4 20.8 25.6 31.0 36.9 43.3

1
Wind speed from Section 1615.

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 Seismic Seismic Wind
Occupancy Importance Importance Importance
Occupancy of Functions of Structure Factor, Factor,
Category Factor,
I Ip Iw

Group I, Division 1 Occupancies having surgery and emergency treatment areas.

Fire and police stations.
Garages and shelters for emergency vehicles and emergency aircraft.
Structures and shelters is emergency-preparedness centers.
1. Essential Aviation control towers.
1.25 1.50 1.15
Facilities2 Structures and equipment in government communication centers and other facilities required
for emergency response.
Standby power-generating equipment for Category I facilities.
Tanks or other structures containing housing or supporting water or other fire-suppression
material or equipment required for the protection of Category I, II or III structures.

Group H, Divisions 1, 2, 6 and 7 Occupancies and structures therein housing or supporting

2. Hazardous toxic or explosive chemicals or substances.
Nonbuilding structures housing, supporting or containing quantities of toxic or explosive 1.25 1.50 1.15
Facilities
substances which, if contained within a building, would cause that building to be classified as a
Group H, Division 1, 2 or 7 Occupancy.
Group A, Divisions 1,2 and 2.1 Occupancies.
Buildings housing Group E, Divisions 1 and 3 Occupancies with a capacity greater than 300
students.
Buildings housing Group B Occupancies used for college or adult education with a capacity
3. Special greater than 500 students.
occupancy Group I, Divisions 1 and 2 Occupancies with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but 1.00 1.00 1.00
structures3 not included in Category I.
Group I, Division 3 Occupancies.
All structures with an occupancy greater than 5,000 persons.
Structures and equipment in power-generating stations; and other public utility facilities not
included in Category I or Category II above, and required for continued operation.
4. Standard All structures housing occupancies or having functions not listed in Category I, II or III and 1.00 1.00 1.00
occupancy Group U Occupancy towers.
structures3
5. Miscellaneous Group U Occupancies except for towers 1.00 1.00 1.00
structures
1
The limitation of Ip for panel connections in Section 1631.2.4 shall be 1.0 for the entire connector.
Structural observation requirements are given in Sections 108, 1701 and 1702.
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2

3
For anchorage of machinery and equipment required for life-safety systems the value of Ip shall be
taken as 1.5.
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 Live Load Reduction
15
L L0 0.25 FPS Units
AI

L = reduced design live load per square foot of area supported by the member
L0= the unreduced live load per square foot of area supported by the member
AI= influence area in square feet, equal to four times the tributary or effective
load-carrying floor area for a column, and two time the tributary or
effective load-carrying floor area for a beam
50% max reduction for members supporting one floor
40% max reduction for members support more than one floor

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Chapter 2

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Support Connections in Actual
and Ideal Structures

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 Principle of Superposition
The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point
in a structure subjected to several external loadings can be
determined by adding together the displacements or internal
loadings (stress) caused by each of the external loads acting
separately.
Requirements
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that Hookes law
is valid, and therefore the load will be proportional to the displacement.
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change when
the loads are applied,I.e., small displacement theory applies. Large
displacements will significantly change the position and orientation of
the loads
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 Superposition Principle

P
P
w w
= +

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Equations of Equilibrium
y
Fx 0 M x 0

F y 0 M y 0

F z 0 M z 0 z x

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For Most Structures Idealized
in 2 Dimensions
1. Requires that a free body diagram be
Fx 0 constructed of the structure or its
members.

Fy 0 2. All forces and couple moments must be

shown that act on the member

M
3. Method of sections will be used to
z 0 determine the internal loadings at a
specific point with a cut perpendicular
to the axis of the member at that point.

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 The Ideal Cut Section
Internal Loadings
M M
V
N N

V = Shear Force
N = Normal Force
M = Bending Moment

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 Determinacy
A structure is statically determinate when the equilibrium
equations can be utilized to determine all the forces in the
structure.
A structure is statically indeterminate when there are more
unknown forces than available equilibrium equations. The
additional equations needed to solve for the unknown
reactions are obtained by relating the applied loads and
reactions to the displacement or slope at different points on
the structure. These equations, which are referred to as
compatibility equations, must equal the degree of
indeterminacy.

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 Stability
Two situations of stability are also required to
maintain equilibrium by providing that members
are properly held or constrained by their supports.

Partial Constraints a structure having fewer reactive

forces than equations of equilibrium.
Improper Constraints - a structure having reactions that
are concurrent at a point.

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 Procedure for the
Application of The Equilibrium Equations
Disassemble the structure and draw the free
body diagram for each member. Also, It may be
convenient to supplement a member free body
diagram with a free body diagram of the entire
structure. Some or all of the support reactions
can be determined using this diagram.
Recall that reactive forces common to two
members act with equal magnitudes but
opposite directions on the respective free-body
diagrams of the members.
All two-force members should be identified.
These members, regardless of their shape,
have no external loads on them, and therefore
their free body diagrams are represented with
equal but opposite collinear forces acting on
their ends.
In many case it is possible to tell by inspection
the proper arrowhead sense of direction of an
unknown force or couple moment: however, if
this seems difficult, the directional sense can be
assumed.
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Count the total number of unknowns to make
sure that an equivalent number of equilibrium
equations can be written for solution. Except for
two-force members, recall that in general three
equilibrium equations can be written for each
member.
Many times the solution for unknowns will e
straightforward if the moment equation Mo = 0
is applied about point (O) that lies at the
intersection of the lines of action of as many
unknown forces as possible.
When applying the force equations Fx = 0 and
Fy = 0, orient the x and y axes along lines that
will provide the simplest reduction of the forces
into their x and y components.
If the solution of the equilibrium equation yields
a negative magnitude for a unknown force or
couple moment, it indicates that its arrowhead
sense of direction is opposite to that which was
assumed on the free-body diagram.